Aswan, called Sunn by the ancient Egyptians, is one of the most important cities in the south of Egypt, and acted as its southern gateway throughout history. As necessary stop for all traders and merchants coming from Nubia through the Nile, it was the link between Egypt and Africa. 

Nubia consisted of two major regions along the Nile River, from Aswan to Khartoum.

Nubian history can be traced from c. 2000 BCE onward to 1504 AD, when Nubia was divided between Egypt and the Sennar sultanate and became Arabized.

Nubia and Ancient Egypt had periods of both peace and war.

Around 3500 BCE, the “A-Group” of Nubians arose, existing side-by-side with the Naqada of Upper Egypt.

Nubia was first mentioned by ancient Egyptian trading accounts in 2300 BCE.

During the Egyptian Middle Kingdom (c. 2040-1640 BCE), Egypt began expanding into Nubian territory in order to control trade routes, and to build a series of forts along the Nile.

The “Medjay” were people from the Nubia region who worked in the Egyptian military.

Some Egyptian pharaohs were of Nubian origin, especially during the Kushite Period, although they closely followed the usual Egyptian methods of governing.

Nubia consisted of two major regions along the Nile River, from Aswan to Khartoum. Upper Nubia sat between the Second and Sixth Cataracts of the Nile (modern-day central Sudan), and Lower Nubia sat between the First and Second Cataracts (modern-day southern Egypt and northern Sudan).

Nubia consisted of two major regions along the Nile River, from Aswan to Khartoum. Upper Nubia sat between the Second and Sixth Cataracts of the Nile (modern-day central Sudan), and Lower Nubia sat between the First and Second Cataracts (modern-day southern Egypt and northern Sudan).

Nubia and Ancient Egypt had periods of both peace and war. It is believed, based on rock art, that Nubian rulers and early Egyptian pharaohs used similar royal symbols. There was often peaceful cultural exchange and cooperation, and marriages between the two did occur. Egyptians did, however, conquer Nubian territory at various times. Nubians conquered Egypt in the 25th Dynasty.

Egyptians called the Nubian region “Ta-Seti,” which means “The Land of the Bow,” a reference to Nubian archery skills. Around 3500 BCE, the “A-Group” of Nubians arose, existing side-by-side with the Naqada of Upper Egypt. These two groups traded gold, copper tools, faience, stone vessels, pots, and more. Egyptian unification in 3300 BCE may have been helped along by Nubian culture, which was conquered by Upper Egypt.

Nubia was first mentioned by ancient Egyptian trading accounts in 2300 BCE. Nubia was a gateway to the riches of Africa, and goods like gold, incense, ebony, copper, ivory, and animals flowed through it. By the Sixth Dynasty, Nubia was fractured into a group of small kingdoms; the population (called “C-Group”) may have been made up of Saharan nomads.

During the Egyptian Middle Kingdom (c. 2040-1640 BCE), Egypt began expanding into Nubian territory in order to control trade routes, and to build a series of forts along the Nile.

Literature Review

In the lands south of the Nile’s first cataract, where savanna meets desert and lions roamed proud, there arose a god whose visage bore their strength. His name was , the Lion of Nubia. His head was that of the great beast, mane flowing like fire, his body clothed in divine might. Where he strode, warriors took courage, and kings claimed victory in his name. The people of Kush called upon him in battle. His roar was the thunder that broke enemy lines, his claws the storm that tore through foes. Yet he was not only destroyer; he was guardian. The same hand that wielded the bow in war also sheltered the weak, for his nature bound strength with protection. It was told that Apedemak descended in visions to the kings of Meroë. In their temples they carved his image: a lion-headed god enthroned, three-headed and four-armed in his might, or towering above captives with the calm power of a ruler who needed no cruelty to command. He bestowed legitimacy, crowning those who honored him with farr of their own — not Persian, but Nubian glory, fierce as the lion’s gaze. In the temple at Naqa, he was shown seated beside Amun, for the Kushites wove their gods into harmony with those of Egypt.

Apedemak was an exclusively Nubian deity and a god of war, often depicted carrying a bow and leading bound prisoners. He was typically represented as a lion-headed human, but also appears as a fierce lion (as seen on the pylon mauling prisoners at the feet of Natakamani and Amanitore) or as a lion-headed cobra. All three forms of Apedemak are depicted on the Lion Temple.

Pylon of the Nubian Lion Temple at Naga

a Nubian royal couple comes from a pylon of a temple, called the Lion Temple, commissioned by King Natakamani and Queen Amanitore in the royal city of Naga in the 1st century C.E., and dedicated to the lion-headed god, Apedemak. 
Founded around 250 B.C.E., Naga was an ancient city and royal residence located south of the Kushite capital at Meroë. This important religious, economic, and political center was placed at the foot of a mountain about 30 miles from the Nile in an area of grasslands fed by seasonal rain, a rich region for both pastoralism and farming. It was also a trade destination for caravans headed east, most likely to Ethiopia and the Red Sea.  

 But where Amun was hidden, a god of distant mysteries, Apedemak was near, present in hunt and battle, a god of immediacy and presence. His lion’s face watched over the people, reminding them that divinity was not only in sky or river but also in the strength of the earth beneath their feet. Legends told of his breath scorching the desert, of his roar shaking mountains, of enemies driven into flight by the very sight of his image upon a banner. Yet he was also said to smile upon farmers, bringing rain after drought, guiding herds through lean years, and blessing harvests with abundance. For the lion does not only slay; he also rules, and his pride is family as much as ferocity. So Apedemak’s worship endured, not as the tale of a single act, but as a presence that wove through life. In battle chants he was invoked before warriors clashed, and in the quiet of temples his name was whispered in thanksgiving for strength given and protection kept. He was a god of the threshold: the roar at the frontier, the guardian at the hearth, the king crowned in lion’s light. Though the temples of Nubia would one day fall to silence, the image of the lion-god remained upon their stones, unbroken by time. Even now, travelers who walk among those ruins can see his face carved deep, eyes staring out across the desert, as if Apedemak still watches, ready to rise should his people call again.

A God of southern Nubia unknown in Egypt but depicted in an Egyptianizing style as a lion-headed man, occasionally winged, holding a sceptre with a seated lion on it or as a lion-headed serpent or as a lion, in virtually all cases wearing the elaborate hemhem crown, also called the ‘triple crown’. This crown, whose name means ‘war cry’, consists of three atef crowns or ‘bundles’ mounted on ram’s horns with a uraeus (cobra) on either side, and sometimes additionally with three falcons atop the bundles, each surmounted by a solar disk. The hemhem crown was part of the insignia of the kings of Egypt starting in the Amarna period, and Ptolemaic era kings are frequently depicted wearing it, but it is virtually unknown in Egyptian iconography for a deity to wear this crown (the only exception being Harsomtus). That Apedemak is consistently depicted wearing this crown may therefore indicate that he is to be regarded as embodying the spirit of the Meroitic dynasty. Principally a warrior God, Apedemak can also appear bearing a sheaf of wheat, or in conjunction with solar symbols as indications of the breadth of his providence. Apedemak also appears sometimes riding a lion, and in association with a winged lion who may represent Apedemak himself or a divine agent of his. Apedemak sometimes has the Egyptian Goddess Isis as his consort and Horus as his child. Though the name Apedemak is Meroitic, it was sometimes written in Egyptian hieroglyphs as if it was pꜣ-ir-mky, “the one who makes protection”.

 Religion was, however, put to different purposes in the two regions, and for that reason assumed different forms. We know from the evidence of Roman writers as well as from a number of inscriptions in the Temple of Philae (fig. i4) that the favourite deity of Lower Nubia was neither Amon nor Apedemak, but the goddess Isis. She was also worshipped in the southern provinces, and is as often shown in temple reliefs as are several other Egyptian deities. She was not, however, a special tutelary of the ruling family in the same way as were Amon and Apedemak. Indeed, her chief cult centre was not in Meroitic territory at all but on the Island of Philae, in Roman Egypt (fig. I4). Here she was worshipped alike by Romans, Egyptians, Nubians and desert nomads, and her shrine was a centre of pilgrimage from all parts of the Nile Valley. Isis-worship therefore did not, and could not, serve to reinforce the exclusive sovereignty of any one family or monarchy in the same way as did the tutelary cults of Amon and Apedemak in the south. Some of the ruling officials in the north did indeed adopt the title ‘Agents of Isis’ (Millet n.d. 26), but others ignored her and all other deities in their titularies. Once again we are reminded not so much of the ancient world as of medieval Europe, where the sanction of the Church was conferred impartially on several different and sometimes warring monarchies.

It remains to consider what light is shed on political conditions by the villages and cemeteries which comprise the vast bulk of Meroitic archaeological sites in the north. These in their own way are as distinct from the remains in the southern provinces as are the great fortress sites. The village houses are built of mud brick and are so tightly clustered together that even small villages present an ‘urbanized’ and congested appear- ance. Some houses are very sturdily built and regular in design, and seem to be the work of professional builders; many others are more flimsy and irregular. Houses of both kinds are usually found in the same village, as though each community had its elite and its humbler families. Yet both humble and elite houses are supplied with material goods, including luxuries, to an extent which is matched in the south only in the royal and noble tombs. Similar conditions prevail in the Meroitic cemeteries of Lower Nubia. A typical cemetery contains from 50 to 400 graves, which are clustered nearly as tightly as are the village houses. The underground chambers are usually dug out of hard earth banks, without structural reinforcement, but some are walled and vaulted with brick. Preference for one type of chamber over another seems to be determined more by the firmness of the soil than by other factors.

There is some variability in the size of the chambers; some of the larger might hold two or more bodies, while many others would have room only for one. Large tombs were sometimes surmounted by small brick pyramids or platforms at the surface, to which stelae or offering tables might have been attached (though these have usually been displaced by robbers). Despite these indications of social inequities, however, there is no clear typological distinction between the largest and the smallest tombs, and they seem to be randomly distributed through the cemeteries.

 Thus, we know from the presence of stelae and offering tables that members of the Wayekiye family – hereditary officials of Lower Nubia for several generations – were buried in the Karanog cemetery (Millet n.d. 77-Io7). Since their stelae a tables were long ago displaced by tomb robbers, however, we now have no way of knowing which tombs at Karanog are actually theirs. This seemingly democratic order- ing of society contrasts sharply with the situation at Meroe, where one cemetery was reserved for the monarchs alone, another for the lesser nobility, and still others (pre- sumably) for the ordinary folk. Widespread material prosperity is even more evident in the graves than in the houses of the Meroitic north.

Although the larger graves typically contain more offerings than do the smaller ones, it is a rare burial which is not accompanied by at least half a dozen objects, often including such imported luxury goods as bronze, faience, glass and ivory. The volume of imported goods found in sites of the late Meroitic period is in fact greater than at any subsequent time in Nubian history down to the twentieth century. Three conclusions may be drawn from our observation of the Meroitic villages and cemeteries of Lower Nubia. First, the unbroken gradation of grave and house types suggests that society was not rigidly stratified on hereditary lines (though the institution of slavery certainly existed, even if it is not attested archaeologically). Second, the wide- spread and fairly equitable distribution of wealth indicates almost certainly that trade was not a monopoly of the state or the elite few, but was widely dispersed in private hands. Finally, the more equitable distribution of wealth in the northern province means also that the average citizen in this political backwater enjoyed a substantially higher material standard of living than did his southern cousin who dwelt in the shadow of the royal court

Significance of the Study

1. Apedemak was primarily worshipped in the Kingdom of Kush, especially during the Napatan period when Nubian rulers sought to legitimize their power.
2. Iconography of Apedemak often depicts him with a lion’s head and human body, emphasizing his role as a fierce protector and warrior deity.
3. Temples dedicated to Apedemak have been found in sites like Napata and Meroe, indicating his significant presence in religious life.
4. The worship of Apedemak reflects the militaristic nature of Nubian society, as he was often called upon during times of conflict or war.
5. Unlike many Egyptian deities, Apedemak was uniquely tied to Nubian identity, showcasing how local traditions diverged from those of their Egyptian neighbors.

• How does the worship of Apedemak reflect the political and military priorities of the Nubian kingdoms?
  • The worship of Apedemak directly mirrors the political and military priorities of the Nubian kingdoms by highlighting their focus on strength and protection in warfare. As a lion-headed god associated with battle, he was invoked by rulers seeking divine support for military campaigns. This reflects a broader societal value placed on martial prowess as essential for maintaining sovereignty against powerful neighbors like Egypt.
• In what ways did Apedemak’s significance differ from that of Egyptian deities such as Amun, particularly in relation to cultural identity?
  • Apedemak’s significance differed from that of Egyptian deities like Amun mainly in his strong ties to Nubian cultural identity and local traditions. While Amun was central to Egyptian royal ideology and linked to concepts of creation and divine kingship, Apedemak represented a more localized warrior ethos specific to Nubia. This difference illustrates how the Nubians adapted their religious practices to reinforce their distinct identity while still interacting with Egyptian beliefs.
• Evaluate the role that Apedemak played in the broader context of Nubian interactions with Egypt during ancient times.
  • Apedemak played a pivotal role in shaping Nubian interactions with Egypt by serving as a symbol of resistance and autonomy. As Nubians worshipped this fierce deity during conflicts with Egypt, it reinforced their identity and collective memory as warriors. His presence in religious practices not only provided spiritual support but also acted as a unifying figure among the various Nubian kingdoms in their efforts to assert independence against Egyptian dominance. This highlights how local deities could influence political dynamics and cultural resilience in historical contexts.

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The Mali Empire controlled all of the salt trade along the trade routes and was the second largest and most successful empire between 1230 and 1600.

The Niger River

The Niger River played an important part in Mali’s success, providing a method of transporting heavy goods and accessing more trade. The river also made the soil more fertile, which led to better crops and better feed to raise livestock.

Some of the most commonly grown crops included beans, cotton, gourds, millet, papaya, peanuts, rice and sorghum. Livestock included cattle, goats, poultry and sheep.

Economy

All goods had to be heavily taxed and all gold nuggets were declared property of the king, leaving only gold dust to be traded. The Empire also offered protection against conflict that started along the trade routes. As the Empire expanded, salt, cotton cloth, gold and later cowrie shells were used as currency.

Mansa Musa

Known as the King of Kings, Mansa Musa was one of the most successful and wealthy leaders of the Kingdom of Mali. He ruled in the early 1300’s until his death in 1337. Many of the palaces and Mosques built during his reign can still be seen today. He had an estimated worth of 400 billion US dollars and even though he lived so long ago, he is still said to be the wealthiest man of all time.

The Rule of Mansa Musa

Musa was regarded as an intelligent and generous leader. He was able to exploit Mali’s gold and salt production, making a fortune and allowing his empire to thrive. When the Mali Empire grew too large for his control, he divided the Empire into provinces and elected governors to manage them. He allowed his people to practice any religion they chose to follow. Despite being a devout Muslim himself, he did not force his Islamic faith on them.

Pilgrimage to Mecca

Performing a pilgrimage to Mecca (referred to as “Hajj”) is one of the 5 pillars of Islam. It is believed that on his journey to Mecca, Musa took 100 camel loads of gold, 500 enslaved people, each carrying a gold staff and his senior wife with her 500 attendants. It Is said that while passing through the Egyptian city of Cairo, he gave away so much of his gold that the price of gold in Egypt fell and the economy suffered for two decades.

It was also believed that Musa had given away so much gold that by the time he had to return home he had run out and needed to borrow money from the surrounding provinces and empires.

The Spread of Islam and the great Mosques

The great mosques were constructed as places of worship and places of learning under the reign of Musa. The three great mosques, Djingareyber, Sankore, and Sidi Yahia, which were designed by the architect Abu Ishãq al-Sãhiland were built in the 14thcentury. The materials used for constructing the mosques included burnt bricks and wooden sticks.

These materials are different to modern building materials, thus the mosques needed restoration and rebuilding over the decades.

Education and Timbuktu

From the 1300’s to the 1600’s, Timbuktu was considered the world’s centre of Islam and Education.

Timbuktu had a population of 100 000, a quarter of which were scholars, making Timbuktu a centre of learning.

The great mosque of Sankore transformed into the University of Sankore. The subjects covered included Islamic theology, mathematics, law, geography, astronomy, medicine, sciences and history.

Did you know that after salt, books were the second biggest import to Timbuktu!

Many experts and organizations have invested in preserving the surviving manuscripts that represent the history of African scholars and are critical to the country’s history.

Currently, most of the manuscripts are preserved in the Ahmed Baba Institute, named after a prestigious 15th century scholar.

In 2012 UNESCO declared heritage sites in Timbuktu, which included the great Mosques and madrassahs that are under potential threat of being destroyed by militant rebels in the region.

Deforestation also poses a threat; drying out the mud that covers the buildings and causing cracking due to a lack of moisture. This weakened the structures and caused sections to collapse.

Conflict in the area between 2012 and 2013 resulted in the Ahmed Abba Institute being set alight and over 4000 texts being destroyed.

Trade and Timbaktu: Leo Afrikanus

Leo Afrikanus played an important role in documenting the history of North Africa, specifically Timbuktu. Afrikanus travelled extensively across the region and documented what he saw in his book, ‘Decryptions of Africa’. 

For centuries, the city of Timbuktu, located in the center of present-day Mali in Western Africa, thrived as one of the bustling centers of culture and learning during the Golden Age of Islam.

The region’s legacy as an intellectual destination begins with the Epic of Sundiata. According to the 13th-century epic poem, the Mandinka prince of the Kangaba state, organized a successful resistance against the harsh Sosso king Sumaoro Kanté—and a new empire was born.

The Mali Empire on the upper Niger River then grew in power and prestige. When the powerful Malian king, Mansa Musa I, peacefully annexed the city of Timbuktu in 1324 after returning from his pilgrimage to Mecca, the empire became a hub of exceptional learning, culture and architecture.

Timbuktu had been a seasonal trading post established in 1100 A.C., where the Saharan Desert and the Niger Delta meet, creating a lush and lucrative agricultural zone. Powerful West African kingdoms and the pastoralist Tuaregs of the Southern Sahara traded here. And when Islam came to Tuareg societies as early as the 8th century, the Tuaregs passed along the religion through trading posts like Timbuktu, facilitating connections between Arab-Islamic and West African peoples.

Under Mansa Musa I and his successors, Timbuktu transformed from a small but successful trading post into a center of commerce and scholarship, making the Mali empire one of the most influential of the Golden Age of Islam. Powerful West African kings and Islamic leaders traveled from far and wide to Timbuktu to trade, learn and foster strong political allies.

By the 16th century, Timbuktu hosted 150 to 180 Qur’anic schools, or Maktabs. Malian rulers also built great mosques, not only for spiritual practice, but also as centers of learning of mathematics, law, grammar, history, geography, astronomy and astrology.

Although the city of Timbuktu was established in the 12th century and became an important commercial centre, it only gained widespread prominence as an intellectual capital in the 15th century. Chroniclers mention that the city has its roots in a nomadic summer camp set up a few miles from the river Niger, as a base from which they could pasture and water their camels during the period of intense heat. This position proved strategic for commerce and soon attracted many settlers. The settlement was important not only because of its location at the junction of the dry Sahara and the lush central valley of the river Niger, but because the river itself constituted an easy pathway for transporting goods to and from the more tropical regions of West Africa. Thus merchants settled there early on and were subsequently followed by Muslim scholars much later, after the establishment of a permanent community.

The population of Timbuktu was always mixed. Although founded by the Imagharen Tuareg, it was settled by Arabs from various Saharan oases, by Soninke merchants and scholars, Songhay, initially as conquerors, and by Fulani pastoralists. Today Songhay is still the dominant language, but Arabic and Tamasheq are also widely used.

The city is not mentioned in Arabic sources until Ibn Battuta’s visit in the early 14th century. In about 1325 the Malian ruler, Mansa Musa, visited the city on his way back from pilgrimage and erected a residence there as well as the Great Mosque (Jingere-Ber). With the decline of the Malian state by the end of the 14th century the city came under the control of a group of Tuareg, but they were finally driven out in 1468 when the city was incorporated into the rising Songhay state under Sonni ‘Ali.

The 16th century, in particular the reign of Askiya al-Hajj Muhammad (1493 – 1528), saw Timbuktu reach its political and intellectual “golden era”. Askiya Muhammad was a great patron of scholars and the historical chronicles of the region, the Ta’rikh al-Sudan and the Ta’rikh al-Fattash, praise him as a pious and learned leader, who listened to the advice of the scholars.

Books were always an important part of the local culture and manuscripts were sold and copied from early on. Under the patronage of the Songhay state (1468 – 1591) local intellectual activity flourished and Timbuktu’s scholars began writing their own books on religious and secular subjects, in addition to commentaries on classical works. Timbuktu was also a centre for trade in books in the 16th century. Leo Africanus (al-Hasan ibn Muhammad al-Wazzan al-Zayyati) gives a glowing account of the book trade during his visit to the city in the early years of that century. Manuscripts were imported to Timbuktu from North Africa and Egypt and scholars going on pilgrimage to Mecca often copied texts there and in Cairo on their way back, to add to their own libraries. There was also an active copying industry in Timbuktu itself.

It is reported that Askiya Daoud, who reigned from 1548 to 1583, established public libraries in the kingdom. Furthermore, a characteristic feature of the scholarly elite was the establishment of personal libraries, a passion that has persisted up until today. Ahmed Baba (1556 – 1627), one of Timbuktu’s most celebrated scholars, is reported to have said that his personal library of more than 1600 volumes was one of the smaller collections amongst the city’s scholars.

Memorial to Ahmad Baba, Timbuktu

Timbuktu’s golden era was abruptly halted by the Moroccan invasion in 1591, initiated by the Sa’dian ruler of Morocco, Mawlay Ahmed al-Mansur. The intellectual and commercial importance of Timbuktu gradually began to decline after the invasion. Just one of the victims of this invasion was Ahmed Baba, who was exiled with his entire family to Morocco (1593 – 1608). In addition, much of his extensive library was destroyed.

In time the city’s military rulers shook off ties with the Sa’dians, who were themselves beset with problems due to the death of Ahmed al-Mansur. A weak state was maintained thereafter around the Niger River from Jenne to Bamba, with the headquarters at Timbuktu. As a result, the city was beset with severe hardships in the centuries that followed and intellectual activity waned considerably. The city very briefly came under Fulani control in the first half of the 19th century but was finally occupied by the French in 1894. French rule lasted until Malian independence in 1960.

Veneration of the written word had however found a secure place in the hearts of Timbuktu’s inhabitants from very early on and scholarly elites and lay people alike held fast to whatever manuscripts they came to possess. Today, it is estimated that there are about 300 000 extant manuscripts in circulation in Timbuktu and the surrounding areas. Locked within these pages is one of Africa’s greatest intellectual legacies. Fortunately, the keepers of this treasure are extremely committed to their culture of learning and sharing. Through the efforts of these “desert librarians”, this legacy is once again being rediscovered.

https://tombouctoumanuscripts.uct.ac.za/overview/timbuktus-history

On the southern edge of the Sahara Desert, north of the River Niger, a city of beige towers and dusty roads appears out of the sand. Its reputation is heavy with the weight of nearly a millennium’s worth of history. For centuries it’s been blessed—and cursed—by rumors of being a hidden paradise. It has passed from the hands of a famed sultan to invading northerners to European imperialists, growing from a tiny nomadic outpost to a major cultural hub. Over the course of its history, the desert city was famed for being dense with gold, for being impenetrable, and for bearing witness to one of the great ecological calamities of the 20th century. Even now, in the age of Google Maps, its name is synonymous with the unknown edges of the world: welcome to Timbuktu.

Founded sometime before 1100 A.D., Timbuktu quickly grew from a seasonal camp for storing salt and other goods to a major center for caravan trade. Travelers coming from the west brought gold to trade for salt from mines to the east. Some of these travelers chose to make the location their permanent dwelling, and before long the town became a city. By the early 1300s, Timbuktu belonged to the Empire of Mali and was truly prospering. People came from across the continent.

During this period, Europe was awash in rumors of Timbuktu’s seemingly endless wealth and resources. It’s said that, in 1324, Mali’s sultan, Mansa Moussa, made a pilgrimage to Mecca with 60,000 slaves and servants and so much gold that, during his visit to Cairo, the price of the precious metal dropped precipitously. All of the gold, claimed the stories, came straight from Timbuktu (though, in fact, Moussa brought it from mines west of the city). Arabic explorer Ibn Battuta visited the famed city 30 years later, and his descriptions of the bustling metropolis stoked the flames of European imagination. While Europeans struggled with a minor ice age and the bubonic plague, they dreamt of streets lined with gold in Timbuktu. The city was a sort of African El Dorado, hidden somewhere south of the Sahara.

It wasn’t until the late 15th century, however, that Timbuktu experienced its “Golden Age.” But it was books, not gold bars, that brought Timbuktu its prosperity. Hundreds of scholars studied at the nearly 200 maktabs (Quranic schools). These scholars worked as scribes, thus increasing the number of manuscripts in the city. (You can browse through digital versions of some of the manuscripts here.) Visiting strangers were treated like royalty in hopes that they’d share their knowledge and books with Timbuktu’s scholars. As California State University’s Brent Singleton, wrote: “the acquisition of books is mentioned more often than any other display of wealth, including the building and refurbishment of mosques” in texts from the era. Timbuktu was one of the world’s great centers of learning. Never had African Muslims seen a better time to be a scholar (or a librarian).

But when Moroccan troops seized control of the city in 1591, it began a long decline that pitted Timbuktu’s historic reputation against its increasingly depressing condition. All the while, European explorers, their imaginations fired by Romanticism and lyrical poets (including Alfred Tennyson, who won a Cambridge poetry contest for his poem about Timbuktu), were making the dangerous trek into Africa in search of the mysterious city. Those who came from the west coast often died of malaria and other tropical illnesses; those who traveled over the Sahara desert faced death by hunger, starvation, and marauding nomads. Frenchman René Caillié was the first explorer to reach Timbuktu and survive. He brought his stories back to Europe, but they were hardly the mystical wonders his compatriots were expecting.

“I found it to be neither as large nor as densely populated as I expected; its commerce is considerably less grand than its reputation claims; one doesn’t see, like at Jenné [another Saharan town along the Niger Delta], this great rush of strangers coming from all parts of Sudan. In the streets of Timbuktu I only met camels coming from Cabra, laden with merchandise carried by a flotilla … In a word, everything exuded the greatest sadness. I was surprised by the lack of activity, I’d say even the inertia that reigned in the city.”

Throughout the 20th century, numerous droughts depleted the city’s water supplies. Some blamed native misuse of the land for the growing desertification and demanded new efforts be made to stop the sands. Others saw only the whim of the weather. After severe droughts in the 1970s and 1980s, it seemed Timbuktu could fall no further. Then, in 2012, Islamic extremists linked to al-Qaida invaded, threatening the city’s years of cultural heritage by burning thousands of ancient manuscripts.

Today, sporadic fighting continues in northern Mali, but many of the citizens of Timbuktu have returned to their homes. The city struggles with poverty and the ravages wrought by the most recent invaders. Most Western embassies have advised their citizens not to travel to Timbuktu. But Alexandra Huddleston, an American photographer who visited the city in 2007, has hope that the traditions that sustained it for centuries might still save it.

“An uneasy balance now exists between tradition and change in Timbuktu,” Huddleston writes. “It is as yet uncertain how these forces may destroy, transform, or coexist with each other, and whether the town will continue to produce saints, historians, poets, and judges raised under a pedagogic system that has endured for centuries.” Whatever its fate and whatever its present reality, the mythic image of Timbuktu seems likely to endure indefinitely: legendary crossroad of the Sahara, city of gold and knowledge.

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Until recently, many commentators on Africa claimed that African societies had no tradition of writing. With the rediscovery of ancient manuscript collections, some dating back to the 8th century AD, this perception is changing. Approximately 250,000 old manuscripts still survive in modern Ethiopia. Thousands of documents from the medieval Sudanese empire of Makuria, written in eight different languages were unearthed at the southern Egyptian site of Qasr Ibrim. Thousands of old manuscripts have survived in the West African cities of Chinguetti, Walata, Oudane, Kano and Agadez. Despite the many dangers posed by fire, floods, insects and pillaging, some one million manuscripts have survived from the northern fringes of Guinea and Ghana to the shores of the Mediterranean. National Geographic estimates that 700,000 manuscripts have survived in Timbuktu alone. The Timbuktu manuscripts Around 60 libraries in Timbuktu are still owned by local families and institutions, collections that have survived political turbulence throughout the region, as well as the ravages of nature. A good example is the Ahmed Baba Institute, established in 1970, which was named after the famous 16th/17th-century scholar, the greatest in Africa. Ahmed Baba wrote 70 works in Arabic, many on jurisprudence but some on grammar and syntax. Deported to Morocco after the Moroccan invasion of Songhay in 1591, he is said to have complained to the sultan there that the latter’s troops had stolen 1,600 books from him and that this was the smallest library compared to those of any of his friends. Today, the Ahmed Baba Institute has nearly 30,000 manuscripts, which are being studied, catalogued and preserved. However, during the period of French colonial domination of Timbuktu (1894–1959), many manuscripts were seized and burned by the colonialists, and as a result, many families there still refuse access to researchers for fear of a new era of pillaging. Other manuscripts were lost due to adverse climatic conditions – for example, following droughts, many people buried their manuscripts and fled. The manuscripts themselves range from tiny fragments to treatises of hundreds of pages. Four basic types have survived: key texts of Islam, including Korans, collections of Hadiths (actions or sayings of the Prophet), Sufi texts and devotional texts works of the Maliki school of Islamic law texts representative of the ‘Islamic sciences’, including grammar, mathematics and astronomy original works from the region, including contracts, commentaries, historical chronicles, poetry, and marginal notes and jottings, which have proved to be a surprisingly fertile source of historical data. The manuscripts themselves are of special importance to their owners for a number of reasons. For example, many people who are descended from the servile classes but claimed noble descent have been caught out by evidence from the manuscripts. Other manuscripts have revealed the unjust dealings of one family with another that may have happened a long time ago but have a bearing on today, such as in disputed land and property ownership. It begs the question as to why the worth of these manuscripts been recognised before now. During the colonial period, many of the owners hid their manuscripts or buried them. In addition, French was imposed as the main language of the region, which meant that many owners lost the ability to read and interpret their manuscripts in the languages in which they had originally been written. Finally, it is only wince 1985 that the intellectual life of this region has been revived. Origins and evolution of Timbuktu According to the 17th-century historian Abdurrahman As-Sadi, the history of the West African desert region could be divided into the rise and fall of three great empires – ancient Ghana, medieval Mali and the Songhay empire. Ancient Ghana The oldest of the three empires, ancient Ghana at its height ruled territory comprising what we would now call Ghana, Senegal, Gambia, Mauritania, Guinea and Mali, located between two great rivers: the Senegal and the Niger. Timbuktu was founded during the dominance of the Ghana empire, in around AD 1100, by Sanhaja desert nomads, who had a tradition of camping near the Niger in the dry season and taking their animals inland to graze during the rainy season. There are several explanations for the origin of the name of the famous city. One account suggests that, while the nomads were away, their belongings were entrusted to their slaves, one of whom was called Buktu. The campsite thus became known as ‘Tim Buktu’, meaning ‘well of Buktu’. What began as a semi-permanent nomadic settlement evolved into town and, ultimately, into a city that, between 1100 and 1300, was a thriving economic centre. Located at a hub of commercial exchange between Saharan Africa, tropical Africa and Mediterranean Africa, Timbuktu was a magnet that attracted both men of learning and men of commerce. It benefited from the gold trade coming from the southern reaches of West Africa – in the 14th century, approximately two thirds of the world’s gold came from West Africa – as well as from the salt trade arriving via the Sahara. The products that reached Timbuktu included textiles, tea and, later, tobacco. Judging from the number of poems about tea found among the manuscripts of Timbuktu, this was clearly a special commodity. Timbuktu scholar Ahmed Baba gave his approval to tobacco in his On the Lawfulness of Tobacco Usage, in which he claimed that it was neither a narcotic nor an intoxicant! However, the most profitable trade items in Timbuktu were books. Buying them was considered a socially acceptable way of displaying wealth and a great source of prestige. For instance, an old Timbuktu chronicle Tarikh al Fettash reveals that the king bought a great dictionary for the equivalent price

Medieval Mali As the empire of Ghana declined, the Mali empire took its place, founded by the Mandinka-speaking people ruling from their capital Niani (in what is now Guinea). King Sundiata Keita of Mali conquered ancient Ghana in AD 1240, and two generations later, Mansa Musa I turned the Mali kingdom into an empire. Islam became the dominant religion of the Malian cities and Arabic became the language of scholarship. Described as the ‘Latin of Africa’, Arabic was useful for communicating between peoples such as the Bambara, Fulani, Hausa, Mossi, Songhay and Tuareg who all spoke different languages. Just as Latin in medieval Europe was associated with Christianity, Arabic in medieval Africa was associated with Islam, and just as Europeans adopted the Latin script to write their own languages, Africans used the Arabic script to write theirs. In 1999, the BBC broadcast the documentary series Millennium: One Thousand Years of History. The programme on the 14th century opened with the following disclosure: ‘In the 14th century, the century of the scythe, natural disasters threaten civilisations with extinction. The Black Death kills more people in Europe, Asia and North Africa than any catastrophe has before. Civilisations which avoid the plague thrive. In West Africa, the empire of Mali becomes the richest in the world.’ There are a variety of ways in which the empire spent its wealth. The Sankoré University mosque was built in about AD 1300 with funding from a woman of the Aghlal, a religious Tuareg ethnic group. The Sankoré Quarter in north-east Timbuktu became the dwelling place of the scholars and teachers. It was also where the first libraries were created. Scholars and kings acquired books during their travels. They were also bought from merchants coming from the north. Mansa Musa I purchased works on Maliki law. He also ordered the construction of the Great Mosque of Timbuktu in 1326. There were a number of challenges to Malian hegemony. One came in 1343, when the Mossi attacked Timbuktu. A source says: ‘The Mossi sultan entered Timbuktu and sacked and burned it, killing many persons and looting it before returning to his land.’ Timbuktu, however, recovered and the Malians continued to rule it for the next hundred years. However: ‘The Tuaregs began to raid and cause havoc on all sides. The Malians, bewildered by their many depredations, refused to make a stand against them.’ Mali lost control of Timbuktu in 1433. The Songhay empire Once a tributary to the Mali empire, the Songhay became independent as Mali declined. Sonni Ali Ber was their first great king, conquering most of what became the Songhai empire and seizing Timbuktu in 1468. The chronicles say he ‘perpetuated terrible wickedness in the city, putting it to flame, sacking it and killing large numbers of people’. The gold traders there, fearing that Sonni Ali would take control of their goods and transactions, started businesses in the city state of Kano in what is now northern Nigeria. The scholars of Timbuktu were also treated harshly and many fled. Subsequent rulers of the Askiya dynasty adopted a gentler approach towards the scholars, offering them cash and privileges, especially during Ramadan. These included slaves, grants of land, and exemption from taxation. Major Felix Dubois, the 19th-century French author of the excellent Timbuctoo the Mysterious, says: ‘To ensure them the tranquillity so necessary to a man of thought and letters, their affairs were managed and their properties cultivated by their slaves.’ Timbuktu benefited under the reign of the Askiya kings. According to the Tarikh al Fettash, a 17th-century history of the region: One cannot count either the virtues or the qualities of [Askiya Muhammad I], such are his excellent politics, his kindness towards his subjects and his solicitude towards the poor. One cannot find his equal either among those who preceded him, nor those who followed. He had a great affection for the scholars, saints and men of learning. Timbuktu eventually rose to intellectual dominance in the region. In the early days, Walata – ‘where the holiest and most learned men resided’ – and Djenné had been centres of Islamic scholarship. Djenné had a university that boasted thousands of teachers, and there are reports of surgical operations successfully performed by their medical doctors, such as eye cataract surgery. But by 1500, Timbuktu had surpassed both of these centres. Scholars and students visited it from the entire region, including Saharan and Mediterranean Africa, and there were scholarly connections between Timbuktu and Fez in Morocco. In addition, during pilgrimages, connections were made with fellow scholars in Egypt and Mecca. According to the Tarikh al Fettash, Timbuktu was described as having: …no equal among the cities of the blacks … and was known for its solid institutions, political liberties, purity of morals, security of its people and their goods, compassion towards the poor and strangers, as well as courtesy and generosity towards students and scholars. According to Leo Africanus in A History and Description of Africa (c. 1526): The people of Timbuktu have a light-hearted nature. It is their habit to wander into town at night between 10pm and 1am, playing instruments and dancing … There you will find many judges, professors and devout men, all handsomely maintained by the king, who holds scholars in much honour. There, too, they sell many handwritten North African books, and more profit is to be made there from the sale of books than from any other branch of trade. Askiya Daud (r. 1549–82), the fifth ruler of the Askiya dynasty, established public libraries and employed calligraphers to copy books for him, some of which were then given as gifts to scholars. The book-copying industry was well structured and extensive. At the end of each book was stated the title, the author, the date of the manuscript copy and the names of the scribes who copied it. Some books also named the proofreaders and the vocalisers (i.e. scholars who added vowels to Arabic), and often they mentioned for whom the manuscript had been copied, the monies involved, who provided the blank paper, and the dates of the beginning and ending of the copying of each volume. Many copyists wrote 140 lines of text per day, while the proofreaders read 170 lines daily. The proofreader of one particular multi-volume text was paid half a mithqal (1.75–2.5g) of gold per volume while the copyist received one mithqal (3.5–5g). Religion Timbuktu was also a religious city. According to a West African proverb: ‘Salt comes from the north, gold from the south and silver from the country of the white men, but the word of God and the treasures of wisdom are only to be found in Timbuktu.’ There is a local legend that the city is guarded by 333 renowned saints as well as numerous lesser ones, and surrounding Timbuktu like a rampart are the chapels where the saints are buried. According to the Sufis, a saint is a Muslim mystic, usually a scholar, who has achieved such closeness to God as to possess special powers. For example, we read: ‘The very learned and pious sheikh Abou Abdallah had no property, and he bought slaves that he might give t

The Sankoré University mosque was the main teaching venue since many scholars lived in the Sankoré Quarter. Classes were also taught at the Great Mosque and at the Oratory of Sidi Yahia. Most of the teaching took place in the scholars’ houses where each had his own private library that he could consult when knotty points of scholarship arose. Very often a student would study under six or seven different tutors, each with a different specialism. At the height of the Songhay empire, Timbuktu had 25,000 students. They would pay the lecturers in money, clothing, cows, poultry, sheep or services, depending on how well-off the student’s family was. Students might also work in the local tailoring industry to pay for their studies. According to the Tarikh al Fettash, Timbuktu had 26 textile factories where each master tailor employed 50 to 100 apprentices. Employment was restricted to students at a certain level of education. Each teacher was expert in a number of texts. This is not quite the same as being an expert in a particular subject. The traditional teaching method involved the lecturer dictating a text of the students. The students would write their own copies and would read back to that lecturer what they had written. All the students would do the same and, in this way, learn from each other’s mistakes. Once the correct version had been written down, the lecturer would explain the technical intricacies of the text and engage in discussion with the students. Among the manuscripts, treatises on pedagogy have survived. Some books tell how to learn to read and improve memory, give suggestions on what subjects should be taught and detail the qualities of an ideal educator. An ideal student was: Modest, courageous, patient and studious; he must listen carefully to his professor and have a solid understanding of his lessons before memorising them. The students must learn to debate among themselves to deepen their understanding of the material. They must always have a great respect and a profound love for their teacher, because these are the conditions for professional success.

The curriculum Ahmed Baba studied Arabic grammar and syntax, astronomy, logic, rhetoric and prosody. Textbooks were purchased and copied on a number of subjects, including astronomy, astrology, botany, dogma, geography, Islamic law, literary analysis, mathematics (including calculus and geometry), medicine, mysticism, morphology, music, rhetoric, philosophy, the occult sciences, and geomancy. The works of the Greek astronomer Ptolemy were basic references for Islamic astronomy. The Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle were also common. The Greek physician Hippocrates was popular, as well as the Persian medical philosopher-scholar Avicenna. Academic standards of teaching in Timbuktu The quality of teaching there was as high as in North Africa and the Middle East, and some scholars say it was even higher. A celebrated professor from Hedjaz is reported to have arrived in Timbuktu with the intention of teaching, but after talking to some of the students and seeing their level of learning, he was humbled and decided to become a student himself. On graduation. after the students had each received a traditional turban, they had a number of career options. Some lecturers issued licences that authorised their best students to teach particular texts. The ulama or scholars had a variety of roles in Songhay society. Some became judges, others became imams and some became teachers. The rural holy men became parish priests, attending to every part of the lives of their flocks. Timbuktu books The documents that have been preserved range from one-page fragments to hundreds of pages – one example cited by John O Hunwick and Alida Jay Boye in their masterly The Hidden Treasures of Timbuktu (2008) is a letter of 482 pages. The Timbuktu manuscripts mainly comprise Korans, Koranic exegesis, collections of Hadiths, writings on Sufism, theology, law and other closely related disciplines. By the 15th century, Timbuktu scholars were producing original works as well as compiling new versions and commentaries on established texts. There are also commercial documents. These typically begin with the phrase: ‘Let all who read this document know …’ followed by the names of buyer and seller, a detailed description of the product, a declaration of the legal validity of the sale, a confirmation that the purchaser paid the price in full and, finally, the name of the drafter and the date. Legal documents also include a statement of the validity of the contract, confirming that the parties were legally competent, free from restraint and in full possession of their mental faculties, and that the transaction was lawful according to Islamic law. They typically end with the phrase: ‘Praise to God and blessings upon the Prophet.’ The reading and writing of poetry was important in these cultures. Among the Timbuktu documents are verses devoted to the Prophet and to the adoration of a particular woman or man, and poems about tea. Poetry was written when a person died, to be read at their funeral. Even works on grammar and law were rewritten in verse to facilitate ease of learning. A number of manuscripts were written in Ajami – Arabic script used to write local languages. There are Ajami manuscripts in Songhay, Wolof, Hausa, Fulfulde and Tamasheq. These texts are concerned with botany, diplomatic correspondence, occult sciences, poetry and traditional medicine. The end of Timbuktu’s golden age The golden age of Timbuktu came to an end with the collapse of the Songhay empire following the invasion by Morocco, whose sultan Ahmad I al-Mansur had established an alliance with Elizabeth I of England. The English agreed to provide the Moroccan military with firearms and men skilled in the use of these weapons. This Arab-European army invaded Songhay in 1591 and destroyed it. The invaders confiscated gold and other resources, enslaved the Songhay scholars – including Ahmed Baba, who was deported to Morocco – and attempted to confiscate Timbuktu’s archives. With the end of the Songhay empire, the two thirds of West Africa that had previously been under a single authority split into smaller and smaller political units, making the region easy prey for invaders and slave traders. In 1656, the great West African historian Abdurrahman As-Sadi wrote in his Tarikh as Sudan: ‘I saw the ruin and collapse of the science of history. I observed that its gold and small change were both disappearing

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The Dark is Rising is the second novel in The Dark is Rising Sequence by Susan Cooper.

This novel is set in Susan Cooper’s childhood home of Dorney in Buckinghamshire.

Susan Cooper is the author of the classic five-book sequence The Dark is Rising, which won a Newbery Medal, a Newbery Honor Award, and two Carnegie Honor Awards. Born in England, she was a reporter and feature writer for the London Sunday Times before coming to live in the United States. Her writing includes books for children and adults, a Broadway play, films, and Emmy-nominated screenplays. Her most recent novel for children is The Boggart Fights Back, and for adults a portrait of Revels founder Jack Langstaff called The Magic Maker. In 2012, Susan was given the Margaret A. Edwards Award and in 2013 she received the World Fantasy Award for life achievement.Her most recent titles are picturebooks: The Word Pirates and The Shortest Day, both published in 2019. Susan lives and writes in Marshfield, Massachusetts.

Susan Cooper was born in Burnham, Buckinghamshire, later moving to North Wales. Her passion for literature began at an early age and she has been writing ever since she can remember.

Susan read English at Oxford University and very soon into her studies became the first woman to edit the University paper, Cherwell. After graduating with an MA in English, she worked at The Sunday Times for 7 years for Ian Fleming, creator of James Bond.

It was during this time that Susan began writing the first of her Dark is Rising sequence, Over Sea, Under Stone.

At the age of 27 she moved to the USA to live with her American husband.

The Dark is Rising Sequence of fantasy novels came about partly as a result of feeling home sick for a number of years. Over the next six years, Susan wrote the next four books, The Dark is Rising, Greenwitch, The Grey King and Silver on the Tree.

It is this sequence that has become synonymous with the name of Susan Cooper and has won Susan several awards, including the Newbery Medal in the USA and two Carnegie nominations in the UK. She was also nominated for an Emmy and won the first Scottish Arts Council Book Award.

In the 1980s Susan began writing text for a number of picture books, and in 2002 published Frog, a story of kindness, courage and friendship.

In 1993 Susan returned to fiction with The Boggart which continued the theme of myth and legend in a new and exciting way, and followed with The Boggart and the Monster in 1997.

Her novel The King of Shadows about the young bard Shakespeare was shortlisted for both the Carnegie Medal and the Guardian Prize.

Susan’s latest novel Victory, published in March 2006, is a swashbuckling and moving story which follows the tale of two children across an ocean two hundred years apart. One is Sam Robbins, a powder monkey aboard H.M.S. Victory, the ship in which Lord Nelson will die a hero’s death at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. The other is Molly Jennings, a present-day English girl transplanted from London to America, fighting a battle of her own against loss and loneliness. The moving climax of the book shows two lives joined forever by the touch of Nelson, one of the greatest sailors of all time.

Literature Review

On Will Stanton’s 11th birthday, he discovers he is the last of the Old Ones, beings with ancient knowledge of the power of the Light, and must collect and join Six Signs to wage a battle against the Dark. He is aided in his quest by Merriman Lyon, the first of the Old Ones, and races to retrieve the signs before the forces of the Dark, led by the mysterious Black Rider. Dogging his footsteps is the sinister yet somehow sympathetic Walker, whose role in the struggle (along with Will’s family) reveals the cruel consequences of loved ones caught in the middle of a timeless war. When the Dark starts to rise, Will with the help of Merriman Lyon and Herne the Hunter, stall the Dark in their effort and wait until the second and final rising.

Plot

The story begins on a snowy Midwinter’s Eve in the Stantons’ household in the village of Huntercombe, where Will awaits his eleventh birthday, living his apparently ordinary life. He goes out with his brother James to feed their pet rabbits, before the two of them head out to Dawson’s Farm, passing Rooks’ Wood and heading along Church Lane. Both of them notice that the animals in the vicinity – the rabbits and the rooks – are nervous and fearful, and for no apparent reason. Whilst on Church Lane, Will notices a man watching them from the side road, apparently a tramp, who disappears from sight. Arriving at the farm, they meet Old George and Frank Dawson. When James mentions the tramp, they catch Mr Dawson’s attention. After hearing the description, he states mysteriously that ‘the Walker is abroad’, and that ‘this night will be bad, and tomorrow will be beyond imagining.’ Realising that it is soon to be Will’s eleventh birthday, Mr Dawson hands him an object; a flat circle quartered by two crossed lines, made from iron. He tells him to keep it with him at all times, and not to tell anyone about it.

The two boys also meet Maggie Barnes the dairymaid at the farmhouse, who apparently has a liking for their elder brother Max. The boys leave with some mincemeat for their mother, and on the way back past the churchyard, they see the old tramp again, who is imminently attacked and scared away by rooks, much to the confusion of the boys.

Night has fallen by the time they arrive home. Will eats with the rest of the family; all but one of his siblings, Stephen Stanton, is not there. Eventually he goes to bed, but whilst preparing for bed, he is stricken with an inexplicable fear; although everything seems perfectly normal, Will can sense that something is wrong. As he tries to sleep, he is attacked again by this mysterious threat, and he begins to scream, as though trapped in a nightmare. The skylight in his room is thrown open by the storm outside. His brother Paul comes to comfort him and offers him his room for the night. Taking the iron circle with him, Will retreats downstairs, but not before finding a black rook feather in the pile of snow that has come in from the open skylight. He recalls Mr Dawson’s words about the next day as he leaves his room.

The next morning, Will is woken by music, which fades away as he wakes. The house is silent on Midwinter’s Day. As he looks outside, he hears the music again, and again it stops. He goes to wake his brothers Robin and James, but for some strange reason they don’t wake, and remain in a deep sleep. He shouts in the silent household, but nobody responds. Will dresses and leaves the house through the back door. The world outside is also completely silent as he walks, and again he remembers Mr Dawson’s words: ‘…tomorrow will be beyond imagining.’ Whilst walking back in the direction of Dawson’s Farm, he hears the sound of a hammer striking metal. In Huntercombe Lane, he comes to a group of unusual old buildings. He realises he has entered a different Time. Here, Will meets John Smith, a blacksmith working on a horse shoe. He also meets the Black Rider for the first time; he seems to know who Will is, and at the same time Will seems to recognize him. The Rider tries to capture Will as he departs on his dark horse, but the smith saves him by pulling him out of reach.

John Smith offers Will refreshment, and also introduces him to a white mare, a horse that comforts Will. Eventually, Will leaves, and then finally meets the old tramp, who Will knows to be the Walker. The Walker asks him to show him ‘the sign’ which Will knows to be the quartered iron circle that Mr Dawson gave him, but as he does so, the Rider appears again, scaring away the old man. The Rider grows in size, attempting to seize Will, who is rescued by the white mare from the smithy. Will escapes from that time and from the clutches of the Rider, and is led through the Chiltern Hills. The horse abandons him on the road, but when Will gets up, he finds two great doors standing before him on the road. Passing through the doors, Will finds himself in a great hall with many tapestries. Here, Will meets two people; Merriman Lyon and the Lady. Both explain to Will that he is one of the Old Ones, a servant of the Light with exceptional magical abilities who came into his inheritance on his eleventh birthday. Merriman begins to teach Will about his abilities, namely telepathy and telekinesis, learning how to place images in other people’s minds and how to extinguish and relight fires. After that, Merriman explains Will’s quest to him; to seek and to protect the Six Signs of the Light, which had been devised by the Old Ones. The enemy of the Light, the Dark, is rising again, and must be stopped.

As Merriman finishes explaining, the hall is attacked by the forces of the Dark. The sounds of howling dogs and of his mother’s voice draw Will to a door that appears in the wall; the Dark are attempting to draw Will out. Merriman explains that the forces of the Dark are always threatening them, and that their power is now growing. The forces of the Dark threaten the hall again, and the Rider appears in the darkness. Though Will drives back the threat, the portal doors through which he first came reappear, and in his eagerness to return home, he breaks the Circle of Three held by him, Merriman and the Lady, leaving them defenseless. In order to protect him and Merriman, the Lady uses her power to open the portal doors, returning Merriman and Will to the Chiltern hills, but at the cost of her vanishing in the process. Though she remains undefeated by the Dark, Merriman explains that she has retreated for now, needing time to recover from the ordeal.

Merriman leads Will to a clearing. When Merriman questions him as to where they are, Will realises he is standing in the grounds of the future Huntercombe Manor, owned in his time by a Miss Greythorne. As he realizes this, he suddenly sees the Huntercombe Lane from his time appear before him, and glimpses his own house. Merriman explains that the Old Ones are loosely placed in Time, meaning they can move between various periods of history (in other words, time travel). The doors that Will discovered are only one of the gateways through Time. Merriman provides some background to the time that Will entered from his own time; he had entered the time of the Royal Forests, preserved by the Kings of England centuries ago.

Merriman leaves Will, explaining that the next part of his quest involves the Walker, and that he will return once Will has found him. In the meantime, Will returns home to celebrate his birthday with his family.

The day before Christmas Eve, Will is returning home by bus with some Christmas shopping. He has as of this point had no further encounter with the Dark, and he has been guarding the first of the signs, keeping it with him at all times. Will is disappointed as he walks back to Huntercombe Lane; although he had a good birthday, his eldest brother Stephen, who is abroad, did not send him a present. Will finds this unusual because Stephen has never forgotten his birthday before.

Will takes a shortcut up Tramps’ Alley, a route that is barely used. He grows cold and hungry, and thinks of the fire that he had conjured and extinguished in the hall with Merriman and the Lady. With his magic, he sets a fallen tree branch alight, but instead of eventually going out, the fire continues to burn. Panicking, Will tries but fails to put it out. As the rooks fly overhead, somebody grabs Will, telling him to put the fire out. It is the Walker.

Will asks the Walker for the second sign, showing him the first that he already possesses. The Walker miserably explains how the sign has been such a burden for him. He is also suspicious, hoping that Will is the one he has been waiting for and not a servant of the Dark. He trusts neither the Dark nor the Light. Will is forced to command him to give him the sign, and the Walker relents, handing him the Sign of Bronze.

At that moment, the fire on the branch goes out. Quite unexpectedly, the farm girl Maggie Barnes appears, which for some reason terrifies the Walker, who won’t go near her. Will grows suspicious, and even more so when Maggie tells him that the Walker stole a Sign from her. He prepares to attack, but does not have the power to resist her. Finding himself immobilized, he can do nothing but watch as Maggie takes the Signs from him. But as she does so, Merriman appears, encasing her in a circle of light. He drives her from the road, and a shield rises on each side of the pathway, protecting Will, Merriman and the Walker. Merriman calls Maggie’s real name, and the farm girl screams; he instructs her never to try and take the Signs again, and drives her away.

Merriman explains to Will that two things have saved him; the real name of Maggie Barnes, and the road that they have used. Though it is commonly called “Tramps’ Alley” its true name is “Oldway Lane”, and Merriman admonishes him to use that name, explaining that he road is one of the Old Ways, trodden by the Old Ones over several millennia, and therefore protected from the powers of the Dark. The Walker has been frozen in time; Merriman releases him and sends him to another time, believing that the old man needs peace. Whilst Merriman disappears, Will returns home, now with two of the Signs.

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Ursula Kroeber Le Guin (1929-2018) was a celebrated author whose body of work includes 23 novels, 12 volumes of short stories, 11 volumes of poetry, 13 children’s books, five essay collections, and four works of translation. The breadth and imagination of her work earned her six Nebula Awards, seven Hugo Awards, and SFWA’s Grand Master, along with the PEN/Malamud and many other awards. In 2014 she was awarded the National Book Foundation Medal for Distinguished Contribution to American Letters, and in 2016 joined the short list of authors to be published in their lifetimes by the Library of America.

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Ursula Kroeber was born in 1929 and grew up in Berkeley, California. Her parents were anthropologist Alfred Kroeber and writer Theodora Kroeber, author of Ishi. She attended Radcliffe College and did graduate work at Columbia University. She married historian Charles A. Le Guin, in Paris in 1953; they lived in Portland, Oregon, beginning in 1958, and had three children and four grandchildren. Le Guin died peacefully in her home in January, 2018.

Few American writers have done work of such high quality in so many forms. Her oeuvre comprises 23 novels, 12 volumes of short stories and novellas, 11 volumes of poetry, 13 children’s books, five collections of essays, and four volumes of translation. Le Guin’s major titles have been translated into 42 languages and have remained in print, often for over half a century. Her fantasy novel A Wizard of Earthsea, the first in a related group of six books and one short story, has sold millions of copies worldwide.

Le Guin’s first major work of science fiction, The Left Hand of Darkness, is considered groundbreaking for its radical investigation of gender roles and its moral and literary complexity. Her novels The Dispossessed and Always Coming Home redefine the scope and style of utopian fiction. Le Guin’s poetry drew increasing critical and reader interest in the later part of her life; her final collection of poems, So Far So Good, was published shortly after her death.

Among many honors her writing received are a National Book Award, seven Hugo Awards, six Nebula Awards, the Howard Vursell Award of the American Academy of Arts and Letters, the PEN/Malamud Award, and the National Book Foundation Medal for Distinguished Contribution to American Letters. In 2000, she was named a Living Legend by the Library of Congress, and in 2016 she joined the short list of authors to be published in their lifetimes by the Library of America. Three of Le Guin’s books have been finalists for the American Book Award and the Pulitzer Prize.

Literature Review

A Wizard of Earthsea (1968)

We arrive in Gont, a part of the archipelago known for goat herders and we meet a young boy whose mother named him Duny before she died. He’s the youngest of the local blacksmith and left to raise himself. He overhears his aunt who hasn’t had much to do with him say something to the goats and he repeats it only for the magic to go awry and her to realize he has a talent for it within him and take him under her wing and teach her what she knows. The book seems to suggest that because she is just a small time witch, a local villager who wasn’t traditionally trained, that while her magics aren’t necessarily good or with good intentions she can’t really be blamed because she wasn’t formally taught how to be in balance in the world and will always be self-serving. But she does teach him a few true names and he is able to summon birds to him.

Foreigners, raiders, white barbarians, come to their shore prepared to destroy and pillage their village and Duny realizes he can, maybe, create an illusion to give their village a fighting chance of survival. But because he also isn’t formally trained he exhausts himself and becomes ill. It works however and word travels fast across the archipelago about this boy with latent power.

Up to this point many have vied for Duny’s attention as a possible apprenticeship, but a grand wizard who goes by Ogion comes to offer Duny an alternative outside of his small village, the chance to apprentice as a wizard. He gives Duny time to think about it and promises to return for his naming ceremony when he comes of age. Duny is excited at the prospect of being powerful and famous and the thought of the adventure that comes with apprenticing under Ogion, a wizard who quelled earthquakes and commands respect wherever he goes. It’s a no-brainer for him.

Ogion returns and names Duny his true name, Ged. And while traveling and apprenticing which Ged learns absolutely nothing except basic education like reading and writing. He becomes bored but gains the nickname Sparrowhawk from summoning birds to him.

Ged is prideful. He wants so much more. And any time someone suggests that maybe he isn’t as powerful as he thinks he is and is truly just an illusionist his pride bubbles up which leads him down a dark path. This path leads to a very dark book that he doesn’t know how to read with a spell in it to bring the dead to the world of the living.

Eventually through mistakes and due to a prideful thirst for knowledge that he doesn’t feel like is being fulfilled Ged, with Ogion’s permission, heads out of the mountains towards Roke to go to wizard school. Here his pride earns him enemies and eventually leads to his folly but his talent earns him praise from teachers and awe from classmates.

Ged however isn’t done courting death and through his hubris and to one-up a rival he creates a hole in the universe and unleashes a great darkness and becomes greatly ill, again.

This curbs Ged’s foolish pride and makes him look at himself and magic and the harping of teachers like Ogion to the ones at his school about balance as a true thing that is needed and how the ego has to be set aside for the greater good. It slows down his learning and he falls behind from his friends who graduate and leave.

Duny is a young boy living in an archipelago of islands known as Earthsea, and his particular island of Gont produces many talented wizards. Duny’s aunt notices that he has an unusually strong gift for magic, and she takes him on as an apprentice magician.

Duny learns the true names of many animals, which allows him to call them to him at will. Since he is always surrounded by birds of prey, the village children call him Sparrowhawk, a name he continues to use for much of his life.

When Duny is 12, soldiers from the Kargad Empire sail to Gont and attack his village. Duny cleverly shrouds the whole village in a thick mist, fooling the attackers. Rumor of Duny’s great achievement spreads, and a wise mage named Ogion arrives to take Duny as his apprentice and give him his true name: Ged.

Ged learns Hardic runes from Ogion, runes that will enable him to learn the Old Speech, the language where all things are called by their true names. One day, a girl asks him about his magic abilities, wondering if he can summon the spirits of the dead. In an attempt to learn a spell to impress the girl, Ged sneaks and reads Ogion’s lore books.

This spell accidentally summons a shadow creature, which must be banished by Ogion. Ogion realizes that Ged wants to learn more complicated magical arts, so he offers him the choice of going to the big city of Roke to attend a magical academy, an option that Ged readily accepts.

At the magic school, Ged meets Archmage Nemmerle and applies himself to his studies. Ged’s pride and unbending nature make it difficult for him to connect with other students. He makes only one friend, Vetch, and also makes one true enemy, Jasper. As Ged learns more and more magic, Jasper taunts him to prove his skills by demonstrating a feat of great power, such as summoning a spirit from the dead.

Ged is overwhelmed by pride in his own abilities and attempts to raise the spirit of a famous deceased woman. Instead, an evil shadow creature slips through a rip in the fabric of the universe and attacks Ged. Archmage Nemmerle drives away the shadow but dies from the effort. Ged is badly injured.

After several months of recovery, Ged is healed enough to walk outdoors again and swear fealty to Gensher, the new Archmage of the school. Gensher urges him to study well because the evil creature he unleashed is waiting for him outside of Roke and will possess him if he does not grow strong enough to withstand it.

Ged lacks his former strength and confidence. He is no longer a star pupil. Still, he passes all his training and, at about 18 years old, he becomes a full wizard and leaves to become the wizard of a town called Low Torning.

Low Torning needs a wizard because their little collection of islands is close to the island of Pendor, where a brood of nine dragons lives. They fear that when the eight younger dragons reach adulthood, they will attack the nearby people. They want Ged to be their protector.

Ged travels to Pendor to kill the dragons so he can complete his duty toward the villagers and leave to confront the shadow. He kills five of the younger dragons. Then the father of the group negotiates with him. Ged says that if the great dragon will swear never to fly east of Pendor to the islands, Ged will not attempt to control or destroy him by invoking his real name, Yevaud.

The great dragon offers Ged jewels and also offers to tell Ged the name of the shadow that hunts him. Ged is deeply tempted to seek his own benefit and make a deal with Yevaud, but instead, uses his influence over the dragon to protect the people of the islands.

After Ged defeats Yevaud through wit, Ged travels toward Roke. Rumor of his great deeds spreads throughout the islands. However, he finds that his passage to Roke is blocked because spells around Roke prevent evil from entering — where Ged goes, his shadow follows. A stranger on an island tells him to go to the Court of the Terrenon in Osskil to gain something that will help him defeat his shadow. In Osskil, the shadow possesses the body of one of Ged’s shipmates and attacks him.

Ged runs away and stumbles into the Court of the Terrenon. There, he meets a woman named Serret. The Terrenon is an ancient jewel rumored to be as old as the world itself. Serret says if Ged touches the jewel, it can tell him how to defeat his enemy.

Ged refuses to touch it. When Serret tries to persuade him to change his mind, he realizes that she and her husband want to let the Terranon possess him so they can use his magical powers. He also discovers that Serret is the girl he tried to impress in Gont as a young boy. Small flying monsters attack Ged as he flees the court, but he turns into a falcon and flies to Gont.

Ged goes to Ogion in falcon form, but he forgets his true self. Ogion helps Ged turn back into a human and suggests that he stop running and confront his shadow. Ged sails out onto the ocean and asks his shadow to meet him. He chases the shadow, nearly catching it several times. On the isle of Iffish, he meets his old friend Vetch, who insists on traveling the last part of the journey with him.

They sail to the farthest southeast island in the world, and then sail even farther eastward into the uncharted ocean. When Ged finally meets his shadow, he calls it Ged and embraces it. He later tells Vetch that he is whole and free, and he cries in relief because the shadow was a part of himself all along, a part that he has now finally accepted.

Earthsea is a collection of islands and that is this world. There is a belief that beyond these islands is the end of the world but because it is an old fantasy world the people of the archipelago are avid sailors, or at least many many of them know how to sail. Magic exists within different frames. Witches are easily found in villages as are sorcerers, but wizards with their staffs are considered highly respected in most of the archipelago and are trained in a well-protected island called Roke where the school of wizardry (seems to be a school for only boys). There is darkness within the world and evil old gods as well as a strong need for balance. The levels of magic change: there are small charms and illusions that any villager sorcerer or witch can do then there’s more complex magic like transforming themselves into another creature. All people are born with a name given by their parents, but then when they reach a certain age (differing by character and culture) when they are to grow up and become an apprentice and prepare for a career and a life they are given their true name. Like fey rules, they have to keep this name close to their chest and not share it with anyone except those they truly trust, or others will be able to use it to control them

 The Tombs of Atuan (1970)

We meet another small child at a very young age. This time a girl named Tenar. She is introduced well-loved by her mother but with her father being cautious to extend love towards her because they will not get to keep her. She is taken, at a very young age, to become the Priestess of the Tombs.  She is taken to lives among the high priestesses of The Place until she is taken for a ceremony in The Hall of the Throne to be renamed as Arha or “the eaten one”. The people of Atuan where she lives believe in a God-king and there are a few older gods like the ones she’s in charge of. They believe that high priestesses are reincarnated. So whenever a high priestess dies the priestesses and their servants (eunuchs and slaves) head out across the land in search of a baby girl born around the same time as the priestesses death and if she’s in good health she is brought back and trained or “reminded” of her job and her past lives serving the gods she had served before. Arha is in charge of the Nameless Ones and is the only one allowed in the Tombs the temple grounds. Here it is always dark and there is a labyrinth filled with riches but only herself and the occasional assistant is allowed to traverse down there.

Because Arha serves the oldest gods, specifically the Nameless Ones, she’s technically, despite her young age, one of the more important and higher ranking priestesses within the temple. However, this also brings her within the ire of older priestesses who serve the god-king and do not really believe in the old gods. It means she cannot be punished but if she tries to bring others with her to do what she wants to do, like skip chanting, they will be punished doubly while she is left alone.

Traversing the labyrinth and the Tombs of Atuan bring Arha joy. There’s not much else to do and she’s bored easily. Plus she knows a long time of the same old same old stretches out before her and most likely forever, as she is expected to constantly be reincarnated. Her guides, older priestesses tell her that occasionally people, men or wizards, try to break into the tombs in search of great treasures and she wonders about it until one day it happens and she finds a wizard bringing light, which is forbidden, into the tombs. He is in search of half of the ring of Erreth-Akbe. She traps him in the tombs and seems to be at odds with herself. It is her duty to make sure anyone who enters the tombs is punished severely with death. But instead, she plays cat and mouse with the wizard, watching and calling to him from above in the temple at various spy holes and trying to keep him alive.

Eventually, she gets to know Ged and to better understand herself and the darkness within the gods she’s the priestess of and the world beyond the temple walls from conversations with Ged.

It’s an interesting story because to an extent she is similar to Ged as a child. She is a young woman severely unsocialized and given a high position without a change in her scenery. She’s essentially a prisoner but a comfortable, prideful and very bored one who doesn’t realize she is stuck and has no desire to see life beyond the walls.

The Eaten One’s Fate

Tenar’s life is predetermined

As a child, Tenar is taken from her family to become the Priestess of the Nameless Ones in the Tombs of Atuan. Her identity is stripped away, and she is renamed Arha, “the Eaten One,” symbolizing her complete devotion to the dark powers she serves. Her life is one of ritual and isolation, bound to the ancient traditions of the Tombs. Despite her high status, she is trapped in a life of darkness and duty, with little understanding of the world beyond the desert that surrounds her.

Darkness and Discovery

Tenar’s world is challenged

As Tenar grows, she becomes more aware of the limitations and emptiness of her role. Her curiosity about the world outside the Tombs grows, and she begins to question the power and purpose of the Nameless Ones. Her life takes a turn when she discovers a stranger, Ged, in the Undertomb. He is a wizard from the Archipelago, seeking the lost half of the Ring of Erreth-Akbe, a powerful talisman. His presence challenges everything Tenar has been taught to believe.

The Labyrinth’s Secrets

Ged’s quest and Tenar’s choice

Ged is trapped in the Labyrinth, a maze of tunnels beneath the Tombs, and Tenar must decide whether to help him or let him die. As she learns more about Ged’s quest and the significance of the Ring, she is torn between her duty to the Nameless Ones and her growing sense of compassion and curiosity. Ged’s presence awakens a desire for freedom and knowledge within her, and she begins to see the Nameless Ones as oppressive rather than divine.

A Thief in the Dark

Ged’s capture and Tenar’s dilemma

Tenar captures Ged and holds him prisoner, but she is intrigued by his stories of the world beyond the Tombs. Ged tells her of the Archipelago, dragons, and the power of true names. He reveals that the Ring of Erreth-Akbe, once whole, can bring peace to the world. Tenar is faced with a choice: remain the servant of the Nameless Ones or help Ged complete his quest and find her own path to freedom.

The Ring’s Reunion

The Ring is made whole

Tenar decides to help Ged, and together they find the missing half of the Ring in the Great Treasury of the Tombs. Ged uses his magic to mend the Ring, restoring its power. This act symbolizes Tenar’s break from the Nameless Ones and her embrace of a new identity. The Ring’s reunion is a turning point for both Tenar and Ged, as it represents hope and the possibility of a new beginning.

Escape from the Tombs

Fleeing the darkness

With the Ring restored, Tenar and Ged must escape the Tombs before the Nameless Ones exact their vengeance. As they navigate the Labyrinth and the Undertomb, the ancient powers awaken, threatening to destroy them. Ged’s magic and Tenar’s knowledge of the Tombs guide them to safety, but not without loss. The collapse of the Tombs marks the end of Tenar’s old life and the beginning of her journey into the unknown.

Journey to Freedom

A new path unfolds

Tenar and Ged travel through the desert and mountains, heading toward the sea and the Archipelago. Along the way, Tenar grapples with her past and the guilt of her actions as the Priestess. Ged reassures her that she is free to choose her own path and that the darkness of the Tombs no longer holds power over her. Their journey is one of healing and discovery, as Tenar learns to trust herself and embrace her new identity.

A New Beginning

Embracing a new life

As they reach the sea, Tenar faces the vastness of the world and the uncertainty of her future. Ged promises to take her to Havnor, where she will be welcomed and honored for her role in restoring the Ring. Though she is afraid, Tenar is determined to find her place in the world. The journey across the sea symbolizes her transition from the darkness of the Tombs to the light of a new life, full of possibilities and freedom.

The Farthest Shore (1972)

We are back on Roke, this time with Arren who is a young prince who has come to try and speak with the archmage about the magic that seems to be escaping the world and the land at a frighteningly fast pace. Wizards have forgotten their skills, spell weavers cannot weave their spells, witches have forgotten their charms, and discord seems to be filling the land. The archmage meets Arren in the courtyard by a pond and Arren is absolutely smitten. He no longer wishes to return home, he wants to stay by the archmages side and protect him. He quickly offers his services and to follow the archmage wherever he may need to go.

Sparrowhawk, Ged, summons the leaders of the school, the masters of their craft and listens to them debate the failing magic of the world and what they think is happening and then tells them he shall set out in search of the source and try to fix it. He is after all not meant to be stuck in one place and it seems like a good excuse to flex his wings and leave the safe but walled city of Roke. They clamor to offer to join him but he declines them all instead choosing to take Arren up on his offer and they set off in his faithful ship, Lookfar.

Together Arren and Sparrowhawk travel the archipelago and find apathy and danger around every corner. People and places that thrived and were safe and filled with magic when Sparrowhawk was younger are now dangerous and the people have forgotten all of their drive, kindness, and skills. They’ve fallen on hard times or into drugs to escape life and death. Around every corner is a temptation to fall into a similar state. The loss of magic follows closely on their heels in every space where they find magic struggling to survive. Singers forget their songs, dancers forget the steps, artisans forget their art, and people are irritable and distrusting.

Arren and Sparrowhawk find dragons and people who’ve given up living on land and nothing is untouched by this ending until they land on the farthest land known to Earthsea where they must take a stand against shadows and face that death itself is what makes life so precious, and to discard one ruins both as well as the balance of the whole world.

The entire series was really well done and seemed to press on making sure the reader understands balance, to strive to learn, and an acceptance that one day we will all die.

This isn’t the first book I’ve read or even the first series that seems to try and help the reader with mortality and comfort them about the inevitable. However, I find these types of books rather melancholy. Peaceful yes but quiet and melancholy and a little sad. Sure there’s plenty of adventure but when a lot of time is glossed over and we learn about a character’s past in only a sentence or two, I guess I get bummed. I was expecting to follow Ged through all of his adventures that people write songs about but we only got a few and we watched him through others’ eyes during most of the important moments of his life. Which might be the point. We’re like a random villager in Earthsea hearing about it second hand through the songs sung about heroes and wizards and the epic tales of the world, but it’s just kind of sad to go from being with Ged every step of the way to suddenly sitting on the sidelines with other characters. Though with how quiet and introspective he gets with his age it might be for the best.

A surreal coming-of-age story that’s also simultaneously a retirement story. Ged, aka Sparrowhawk, is now Archmage of the Great House of Roke. And he faces a new challenge – magic is disappearing from the world. The mages are forgetting their spells and their words of power, and no one seems to know why. As Ged voyages off to find the cause of these events, he is accompanied by Arren, a young prince of Aragornly heritage.

“…but he felt the Archmage’s touch as a thrill of glory. For Arren had fallen in love.”

The relationship between Ged and Arren at times gave me inappropriate feels (from Arren’s end), but I don’t know if that’s me being a prude about Le Guin’s broader definition of love or what. Ged’s Dumbledore-like reticence was also annoying at times because I really do feel that communicating clearly with one’s companion is likely to get you better results than anything else.

Their adventures in search of the mysterious evil that is blanking out all that is magic in the world take them to some odd places, including a fully aquatic nomadic village constructed on rafts. The communities and societies that Le Guin so painstakingly constructs are interesting to read about, but everywhere the story remains the same – the magic has been taken away, and only hopelessness, despair, and zombies remain.

The post Write up on Ursula le Guin’s Earth Sea Trilogy appeared first on DayDreamin’ Comics.

Weird Tales was the first periodical devoted to fantasy and the supernatural. Along with Hugo Gernsback’s Modern Electrics, The Electrical Experimenter, and Science and Invention, “The Unique Magazine” also provided a home for early science fiction.

The magazine was the brainchild of Jacob C. Henneberger. With his partner, J. M. Lansinger, Henneberger published the very successful College Humor, along with its lesser companion, The Magazine of Fun. Wanting to expand into the growing pulp magazine field, the partners launched Detective Tales in September 1922, with author and journalist Edwin Baird serving as editor.

Hoping to spread their overhead costs over two pulps, Henneberger and Lansinger introduced Weird Tales about a half-year later. Its first issue was dated March 1923. Subtitled “The Unique Magazine,” the new pulp was meant to give a writer “free rein to express his innermost feelings in a manner befitting great literature.”

The early issues of Weird Tales were, in reality, filled with ghost stories and what the magazine’s editor — Edwin Baird — termed “gooseflesh fiction.” Far more interested in the publishers’ Detective Tales, Baird had little interest in fantasy and the supernatural. Add onto that uninspiring interior illustrations and bland, three-color cover art, low author rates and slow payments, and a high cover price when compared to other pulps, and one can understand why Weird Tales soon found itself in hock to its printer.

Convinced that a magazine dedicated to the strange and unusual could be successful, Henneberger sold his interests in College Humor, The Magazine of Fun, and the retitled Real Detective Tales to his partner. He plowed his proceeds back into Weird Tales. Baird stayed with the detective pulp, while one of his assistants, Farnsworth Wright, was named editor of “The Unique Magazine.”

Although Edwin Baird had introduced Weird Tales readers to some of the magazine’s leading lights — Otis Adelbert Kline, H. P. Lovecraft, Frank Owen, Seabury Quinn, and Clark Ashton Smith — “The Unique Magazine” truly came into its own in late 1924 when Wright assumed the editorial reins. Although Lovecraft sometimes found Wright to be “a most bewilderingly capricious cuss!” it was Farnsworth Wright’s sense of the commercial pulp fiction market that kept the magazine afloat during some very challenging times.

With Wright at the helm, Weird Tales introduced readers to the work of Robert Bloch, Arthur J. Burks, Hugh B. Cave, Mary Elizabeth Counselman, August Derleth, Nictzin Dyalhis, Paul Ernst, Edmond Hamilton, Robert E. Howard, Carl Jacobi, Henry Kuttner, Greye La Spina, Frank Belknap Long, C. L. Moore, G. G. Pendarves, E. Hoffmann Price, Manly Wade Wellman, Donald Wandrei, Henry S. Whitehead, Jack Williamson, and others. And let’s not forget artists Hannes Bok, Magaret Brundage, and Virgil Finlay or the continued work of Kline, Lovecraft, Owen, Quinn, and Smith. It was Wright who published “The Call of Cthulhu,” “The Whisperer in Darkness,” and other classic works by H. P. Lovecraft. And though it was Edwin Baird who began buying the poetry of Clark Ashton Smith, it was Farnsworth Wright who launched the poet’s fiction career in 1928.

In addition to publishing some of the best fantasy and supernatural fiction of the twentieth century, Weird Tales — like the Munsey magazines — featured science fiction and scientific romances in its pages, offering tales of interplanetary expeditions, brain transference, death rays, lost races, parallel worlds, and more. Edmond Hamilton was its leading contributor of science fiction. With stories about alien invasions, space police, and evolution gone wild, the author became known as “world-wrecker” Hamilton.

Other notable science fiction in Weird Tales included work by Austin Hall, Otis Adelbert Kline, Frank Belknap Long, C. L. Moore, Donald Wandrei, and Jack Williamson. And of course, H. P. Lovecraft spun his own unique style of science fiction in his tales of cosmic horror.

In late 1938, Weird Tales was sold to William J. Delaney, publisher of Short Stories. The magazine’s editorial offices were shifted from Chicago to New York, along with Farnsworth Wright. Dorothy McIlwraith, the editor of Short Stories, was named Wright’s assistant.

In declining health — due to Parkinson’s Disease — Wright stepped down from the magazine in early 1940. Now a bi-monthly, McIlwraith’s first issue as editor of Weird Tales was dated May 1940. Farnsworth Wright died not long after its release.

Like Wright before her, Dorothy McIlwraith continued to publish excellent fantasy and horror fiction, introducing readers to the work of Ray Bradbury, artist Lee Brown Coye, and author Allison V. Harding, as well as some of the early work of Fritz Leiber. Robert Bloch, August Derleth, Edmond Hamilton, Carl Jacobi, Seabury Quinn, and Manly Wade Wellman also continued to contribute significant work to “The Unique Magazine.”

Facing increased competition, Weird Tales became a digest magazine with its September 1953 issue. One year later, the final number of its original run — the last of 279 issues — was published. It was dated September 1954 and featured a reprint cover by Virgil Finlay.

Nearly twenty years after its initial demise, “The Unique Magazine” became “The Magazine That Never Dies.”

During 1973 – 74, Weird Tales was revived for four issues, edited by Sam Moskowitz. A paperback series lasting four more issues — edited by Lin Carter — appeared from 1981 to 1983. During 1984 – 85, Brian Forbes published two issues of what has become known as the California Weird Tales. The magazine was revived again in 1988 by George H. Scithers, Darrell Schweitzer, and John Gregory Betancourt. Since then, it has, more or less, been published continuously. The 367th issue was recently released

The first issue of WEIRD TALES — dated March 1923 — featured cover art by R. R. Epperly. It is best remembered for publishing Anthony M. Rud’s “Ooze,” a story concerning a giant amoeba. The issue was edited by Edwin Baird.

Farnsworth Wright’s first issue of Weird Tales as editor was dated November 1924. It’s the magazine’s second four-color cover, following the “Anniversary Number” of May-June-July 1924. The cover art is by Andrew Brosnatch.

One of the changes that Wright instituted when he took over “The Unique Magazine” in the fall of 1924 was to increase the number of interior illustrations in each issue. According to Terence E. Hanley, writing in Tellers of Weird Tales, “Brosnatch illustrated every part of the magazine — covers, interiors, and “The Eyrie” alike — for the next year and more, sometimes singlehandedly. . . . Long after Brosnatch had left Weird Tales, his decoration for “The Eyrie” remained, even to the last issue, September 1954.”

Margaret Brundage created 66 covers for Weird Tales between 1932 and 1945, making her the most in-demand cover artist for the magazine. Only Virgil Finlay was a close rival. Despite contributing over five dozen covers to “The Unique Magazine,” her cover for Weird Tales for April 1935, seems to be the only one with a science fiction theme.

Beginning with the December 1939 number of Weird Tales, Hannes Bok contributed seven covers to “The Unique Magazine.” Pictured above is his cover for the May 1940, the first issue to be edited by Dorothy McIlwraith, who also served as the editor of Short Stories. Quite a few authors resented the promotion of McIlwraith to the editorial chair of Weird Tales, feeling that Farnsworth Wright had been forced out by the publisher. Truth be told, Wright’s health was increasingly precarious in 1940. He passed away on June 12 of that year.

With increasing competition from digest magazines, paperback books, comic books, and more, Weird Tales was converted to a digest magazine with its September 1953 number. It labored on for another year, featuring a mix of reprint fiction and original stories. Three of its final four covers were also reprints, including the Virgil Finlay piece used for September 1954 number, its final issue. It was originally used as the cover art for the August 1939 Weird Tales.

Our final image is Weird Tales for September 1953, with cover by Jon Arfstrom. It is the first of seven digest issues of “The Unique Magazine.” The artist — who passed away on December 2, 2015 — was a guest of our convention that same year.

Our featured image is adapted from Matt Fox’s cover art for the November 1944 Weird Tales, edited by Dorothy McIlwraith. A cartoonist, illustrator, comic book and advertising artist, watercolorist, painter, and graphic artist, with lithographs, woodcuts, and etchings to his credit, Fox painted eleven covers for Weird Tales and also contributed interior illustrations to the magazine. A freelance artist, he also worked for Fiction House, Popular Publications, and other publishers, and later for Marvel Comics.

The post Write up on Weird Tales Magazine’s History appeared first on DayDreamin’ Comics.

Mary Shelley was born in London in 1797 to acknowledged radicals William Godwin and Mary Wollstonecraft. Infamous for her refusal to conform to traditional expectations, Wollstonecraft wrote the early, crucial feminist work, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), arguing for formal education for girls. Both parents would strongly mark Mary’s writing, although she never knew her mother; Wollstonecraft died from an infection eleven days after the birth. However, Mary would read her mother’s works later and became close to her illegitimate half-sister, Fanny Imlay, loved by Godwin as well. Devastated by Wollstonecraft’s death, Godwin attempted to restore her reputation in his book, Memoirs of the Author of ‘A Vindication of the Rights of Woman’ (1798). He achieved the opposite effect, as he detailed Wollstonecraft’s suicide attempts, affairs, and facts about her illegitimate daughter. The account shocked the public, destroying any standing Wollstonecraft retained, her reputation unrestored until the twentieth-century feminist movement (Mellor 1–4).

Always living beyond his means, Godwin, a declared atheist and anarchist, made a scant living as a journalist, political philosopher, and novelist (Mellor 7). His most well-known books, An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice (1793) and Things as They Are; or, The Adventures of Caleb Williams (1794), later served as models for Mary’s depiction of social (in)justice in at least two novels. Godwin attracted a following as a cornerstone of philosophical political revolution. While deeply grieving for his wife, he assumed care of Mary and Fanny. Godwin sought family and financial stability in 1805 by remarrying to Mary Jane Clairmont, whom Mary would find an unsympathetic stepparent (Mellor 12–13). The Godwins bought and lived above a children’s bookshop. Writing as Edward Baldwin, Godwin also published children’s books.

In 1812, letters to Godwin arrived from an admirer named Percy Bysshe Shelley. The family learned that at Eaton College, Shelley’s behavior distinguished him from fellow privileged students. He refused the traditional role of servant to the older boys and was bullied for his lack of interest in games and his high-pitched crying. He moved to University College, Oxford, from which he was expelled in 1811 for publishing the pamphlet The Necessity of Atheism. The University offered reinstatement for repudiation of his blasphemous views, but he refused. On August 28, Shelley eloped with sixteen-year-old Harriet Westbrook. All of this activity estranged Shelley from his father, Sir Timothy Shelley, and theirs would remain a strained relationship (Mellor 18–19).

By 1814, Shelley was an occasional guest in the Godwin home, as were many literary and philosophy luminaries, from whom Mary could learn. Shelley’s wife had given birth to a daughter and was pregnant again, but, by March, Shelley and sixteen-year-old Mary had begun a passionate courtship. First resisting Shelley, Mary eventually found him mesmerizing; he reportedly wooed her as she read at her mother’s grave. In July, they eloped to Europe, leaving Percy’s wife, daughter, and later a son, born a few months later in November (although the boy’s paternity was never assured). Percy and Mary’s elopement and the abandonment of his family caused great scandal. In addition, Claire Clairmont, Mary’s emotional stepsister, accompanied them, also engaging in scandalous behavior. Despite personal beliefs that challenged civic and religious law, Godwin was incensed by Mary’s actions, and he interpreted Shelley’s conduct as a personal betrayal. Although demanding money from Shelley, Godwin refused direct communication with his daughter for years (Mellor 17–22). According to Mary’s journal entries, the social condemnation surprised her, but her father’s rejection proved particularly painful. In February 1815, Mary gave birth to a premature daughter, Clara, who died soon after. By 1815, Shelley had a steady income from his grandfather’s estate, and he sent Harriett an annuity.

As the couple traveled, like her mother, Mary published an 1817 travelogue in which she criticized many fellow travelers. Her History of a Six Weeks’ Tour also contains journal entries and letters to Fanny. Her keen skills of observation while living abroad influenced the international settings of Mary’s future fiction (Mellor 24–26). However, neither she nor Percy “considered her…talent…equal to his” (23).

Despite ongoing personal drama, including involvement with Claire, Percy began writing some of his era’s greatest poems, promoting his reputation as part of the Romantic movement. His personal circle included individuals crucial to practice of the romantic ideal, such George Gordon Byron, Sixth Baron Byron, also a poet and an outcast due to various indiscretions, including rumored sexual relations with a half-sister and separation from his wife. On January 24, 1816, William Shelley was born. That summer, the notorious group moved to Lake Geneva in Switzerland. Claire Clairmont was pregnant with Byron’s child, Allegra. Byron never confessed love for Claire and later separated from her. Mary described Claire’s reaction to the gothic literature the group read as “Jane’s horrors” (Mellor 25–27). A lifelong friendship fraught with challenge, including Claire’s constant presence, developed among Byron, Percy, and Mary (Mellor 33–37).

The origin of Mary Shelley’s first and best-known book, Frankenstein, or the Modern Prometheus (1818) remains familiar legend. On a rainy evening, after Mary; Percy; Claire; Byron; and Byron’s physician, Polidori, had been reading German ghost stories, Byron challenged everyone to write their own ghost story. After days without inspiration, Mary developed her story of Dr. Victor Frankenstein, his monstrous creation, and the fatal results. Mary’s 1831 preface to a later edition of her novel described the nightmare that inspired Frankenstein:

Literature Review

 The plot Dr Frankenstein is a brilliant scientist, who is obsessed with the idea of gaining control over life and death, refusing the limits of contemporary science. He carries out his research alone and unaided until he eventually succeeds in bringing to life a monster he has created out of the organs of dead men. However, even Frankenstein is frightened when he sees the fruit of his insane fantasy. The monster escapes from the laboratory and appears some time later in the Swiss Alps, where he is rejected by all the men that he encounters, not so much for his ugliness as for his clearly non-human features. His need to communicate with others is continually frustrated and anger towards all mankind builds up leading to a tragic climax in his killing of Frankenstein’s best friend, his little brother and his wife. The monster takes refuge at the North Pole knowing that only there, in a place of total desolation he will kill no more. Dr Frankenstein follows him, intending to kill his creation but it is the doctor himself who is mortally wounded by the monster. He accuses Dr Frankenstein and the rest of mankind of lacking all compassion. The story ends with the monster being borne away on an ice raft in the Arctic sea. A more detailed summary An English explorer, Robert Walton, is on an expedition to the North Pole. In letters to his sister Margaret Saville, he keeps his family informed of his situation and tells about the difficult conditions on the ship. One day, when the ship is completely surrounded by ice, a man in bad condition is taken aboard: Victor Frankenstein. As soon as his health allows it, he tells Walton the story of his life. Victor Frankenstein grew up in Geneva, Switzerland as the eldest son of a higher-class family. He was brought up with an orphan, Elizabeth and had two younger brothers. He did not have many friends, Henry Clerval being the only exception. At the age of nineteen, Frankenstein became interested in natural philosophy, electricity, chemistry and mathematics. After the death of his mother, who succumbed to scarlet fever, Frankenstein left for Ingolstadt, Germany, to attend university. There, his interest in natural philosophy quickly became an obsession. He was particularly fascinated with the human frame and the principle of life. After four years of fanatic studying, not keeping in contact with his family, he was able to “bestow animation upon lifeless matter” and created a monster of gigantic proportion from assembled body parts taken from graveyards, slaughterhouses and dissecting rooms. As soon as the creature opened his eyes, however, the beauty of Frankenstein’s dream vanished: it became a horrible creature. He realised he made a mistake in creating this monster and fled from his laboratory. On his return the next day, the monster had disappeared. Victor was consequently bedridden with a nervous fever for the next months, being nursed back to health by his friend, Clerval. On the eve of the return to his parental home, he received a letter saying that his youngest brother had been found murdered. On his way home, Frankenstein saw the dæmon he had created and immediately realised that it was he who was responsible for his brother’s death. Frankenstein decided not to tell his family about the dæmon because they would simply dismiss it as insane. As he arrived home, he was informed that the murderer of his brother had been found. The accused was Justine, a good friend of the family. When Justine was found guilty and was hanged, Frankenstein’s heart was tortured. He could not stay in the house and started wandering in the Alpine valleys. There, Frankenstein was confronted with his creation who told him his life story. After leaving Frankenstein’s laboratory, the monster went to the village where he was insulted and attacked by the frightened villagers. He eventually went to the country and found refuge in a hovel next to small house inhabited by a old, blind man and his two children. By observing the family and by reading their books, the monster learnt how to speak and read. He felt compassion for the family, who had to struggle to get by, and anonymously did chores for them. Longing for some kindness and protection, he decided to meet his hosts. He got into a pleasant conversation with the blind man but his children returned unexpectedly. Horrified by his appearance, they beat him and he fled the house. Completely disillusioned, the monster was filled with rage and decided to find his creator. By chance he met Frankenstein’s younger brother in the forest. As soon as he discovered that the boy “belongs to the enemy” he choked him. He also placed a portrait in the lap of a sleeping young girl, Justine, thereby incriminating her with his crime. The dæmon’s only request from Frankenstein was that he should create another being: a female to accompany him. If Frankenstein complied, he and his bride would stay away from other people and keep to themselves in the wild. Frankenstein saw some justice in the monster’s arguments and also felt that he had a duty towards his fellow-man, so he agreed to the dæmon’s request. Victor left for England to finish his work accompanied by his friend Clerval, promising to marry Elizabeth on his return. When the work on his second creation was advanced, he started to question his promise. He was afraid that they might hate each other, or that they might produce a whole race of these creatures. When the monster visited to check on the progress, Frankenstein destroyed his work. The monster swore revenge and promised to be with him on his wedding night. The following day a body was found and Frankenstein was accused of murder. He was taken to the body, which he identified as Henry Clerval. He was eventually cleared of all charges and returned to Geneva in a very bad condition. Frankenstein married Elizabeth after promising her to tell her his horrifying secret the following day. Remembering the monster’s threat, Frankenstein was convinced that he would be killed that night. The monster, however, killed Elizabeth instead. Frankenstein lost another family member as his father died after hearing the news about Elizabeth’s death. Frankenstein had now lost every sensation except for revenge. He followed the monster everywhere, which eventually led him to the Arctic region, where he was taken aboard Walton’s ship. After telling Walton his story, Victor asks him to kill the monster if he dies before he can do it himself. The ship has in the meantime been freed from the ice and, pressured by his crew, Walton has decided to abandon his trip and return home. Victor’s health eventually deteriorates and he dies. Just after his death, Walton finds the monster hanging over Victor’s body. The dæmon speaks of his sufferings. Because of all the murders he has committed, he now hates himself. Since his creator is dead, he decides it is time that he too will rest in death. After stating that he will build a funeral pile for himself, he leaves the ship and disappears on his ice-raft in the darkness.

Part 1: Walton’s Opening Letters

The novel opens with Robert Walton’s letters to his sister Margaret Saville. Walton is a sea captain and a failed poet. He is traveling to the North Pole in pursuit of glory and has high hopes for geographical and scientific discoveries. On his journey, he spots what looks like a giant rushing by on a sledge; soon after, his ship passes an emaciated and frozen man floating on a slice of ice. The crew rescues the stranger, who reveals himself to be Victor Frankenstein. Walton is impressed with his wisdom and cultivation; they talk and Walton states that he would sacrifice his own life for the sake of a greater good, and for lasting glory. Frankenstein then launches into his own story as a warning of the dangers of such a life philosophy.

Part 2: Frankenstein’s Story

Frankenstein begins his tale with his happy upbringing in Geneva. His mother, Caroline Beaufort, is the daughter of a merchant and marries the older, reputable Alphonse Frankenstein. She is graceful and affectionate, and young Frankenstein has a wonderful childhood. He loves reading about the secrets of heaven and earth—natural philosophy, alchemy and the philosopher’s stone. He seeks glory and wishes to uncover the mystery of life. His close childhood friend, Henry Clerval, is his opposite; Clerval is curious about the moral relations of things, and is fascinated by tales of virtue and chivalry.

Frankenstein’s parents adopt Elizabeth Lavenza, an orphaned child of Milanese nobility. Frankenstein and Elizabeth call each other cousin and are brought up together under the care of Justine Moritz, another orphan who serves as their nanny. Frankenstein praises Elizabeth much as he does his mother, describing her as saintly, and admiring her grace and beauty.

Frankenstein’s mother dies of scarlet fever before he leaves for the University of Ingolstadt. In a state of heavy grief, he throws himself into his studies. He learns about chemistry and modern scientific theories. Eventually he discovers the cause of life—and he becomes capable of animating matter. He works in a feverish excitement to build a being in the likeness of a man, but proportionally larger. His dreams of beauty and fame are crushed when his finished creation is, in fact, monstrous and completely repulsive. Disgusted with what he has created, Frankenstein runs out of his house and happens upon Clerval, who has come to the University as a fellow student. They return to Frankenstein’s place, but the creature has escaped. Utterly overwhelmed, Victor falls into an intense sickness. Clerval nurses him back to health.

Frankenstein eventually decides to travel home to Geneva once he recovers. He receives a letter from his father, which relays the tragedy that his younger brother, William, was murdered. Frankenstein and Henry return home, and upon reaching Geneva, Frankenstein goes for a walk to see for himself the place where William was killed. On his walk, he spies the gigantic creature in the distance. He realizes that the creature is responsible for the murder, but he is unable to prove his theory. Justine, who was framed by the monster, is convicted and hanged. Frankenstein is heartbroken. He turns to nature for isolation and perspective, and to forget his human problems. Out in the wilderness, the monster seeks him out to talk.

Part 3: The Creature’s Tale

The creature takes over the novel’s narrative and tells Frankenstein his life story. Soon after his birth, he realizes that all people are terrified of him and hateful towards him solely because of his appearance. Chased away by villagers throwing stones, he runs to the wilderness where he can hide from civilization. He finds a place to call home close by a cottage. A family of peasants lives there peacefully. The creature observes them daily and grows very fond of them. His empathy for humankind expands and he longs to join them. When they are sad, he is sad, and when they are happy, he is happy. He learns to speak through observation, and calls them by their names: Mr. De Lacey, his son Felix, his daughter Agatha, and Safie, Felix’s love and the daughter of a ruined Turkish merchant.

The creature teaches himself to read. With literature, he displays a human consciousness, facing the existential questions of who and what he is. He discovers his ugliness, and manages to disturb himself deeply when he spies his own reflection in a pool of water. But the monster still wants to make his presence known to the De Lacey family. He talks with the blind father until the other peasants come home and are terrified. They drive the creature away; he then journeys to Frankenstein’s home, and happens upon William in the wood. He wishes to befriend the boy, believing his youth would make him less prejudiced, but William is just as disgusted and fearful as anyone else. In a rage the monster strangles him and frames Justine for the murder.

After completing his story, the creature asks Frankenstein to create a female companion with similar deformities. The creature has come to terms with the fact that he won’t be able to have any relationships with humans. He believes his malicious acts are a result of his isolation and rejection. He gives Frankenstein an ultimatum: the master will either deliver a creature companion or all he holds dear will be destroyed.

Part 4: Frankenstein’s Conclusion

Frankenstein again picks up the narrative. He and Elizabeth make their mutual love known. Frankenstein then travels to England with Henry, so that he can finish his engagement with the monster away from his family and friends before he marries Elizabeth. They travel together for some time, and then separate in Scotland; Frankenstein begins his work there. He believes the creature is stalking him and is plagued by what he promised to do, as he is convinced that creating a female creature would lead to a “race of devils.” Ultimately, he fails to deliver his promise, despite the creature confronting him. The creature threatens that he will be with Frankenstein on his wedding night, but Frankenstein will not create another monster.

He journeys on to Ireland and is immediately imprisoned. The creature has strangled Clerval, and Frankenstein is believed to be the suspect. In jail, he becomes deathly ill for several months. His father comes to his rescue, and when the grand jury validates the proof that Frankenstein was on the Orkney Islands when Clerval was killed, he is liberated. He and his father travel home. He marries Elizabeth and prepares to battle the creature, remembering the monster’s threat. But while he is readying himself, the monster strangles Elizabeth to death. The creature escapes into the night, and shortly afterwards, Frankenstein’s father dies as well. Frankenstein is devastated, and he vows to find the creature and destroy him. He follows the monster up to the North Pole, where he comes across Walton’s expedition, and thus rejoins his narrative to the present.

Part 5: Walton’s Concluding Letters

Captain Walton ends the story as he began it. Walton’s ship is trapped in the ice, resulting in the deaths of some of his crewmen. He fears mutiny; many want him to turn southward as soon as the ship is free. He debates whether or not to forge ahead or turn back. Frankenstein urges him to move forward with his journey and tells him that glory comes at the price of sacrifice. Walton ultimately turns the ship around to return home, and Frankenstein passes away. The monster then appears to find his creator dead. He tells Walton of his plan to go as far north as possible and die so that the whole sordid affair can finally end.

Significance of Study

Elizabeth’s death in Frankenstein is one of the most significant moments that heavily affects Victor’s development. She was an orphan child accepted by the family. The scientist later falls in love with Elizabeth, and they decide to strengthen their bonds through marriage. It shall be noted that she was a critical source of information throughout the story because she sent letters to Victor. During their honeymoon, the couple resides in a room where they express their affections towards each other. When Victor decides to leave the room for some time, she remains alone. At this moment, the monster enters the scene and finds the victim. He strangles the young lady to death. Later, Victor describes: “The murderous mark of the fiend’s grasp was on her neck, and the breath had ceased to issue from her lips.” In other words, the monster squeezed her neck tight, which led to suffocation. It becomes a turning point for Victor. He gets furious at his creation because his love for Elizabeth is irreplaceable.

Elizabeth Lavenza

The orphaned daughter of an Italian aristocrat who had fallen into poverty, Elizabeth was adopted at the age of four into the Frankenstein family. Her lifelong connection to Victor seems to have been assumed from the beginning. But what is that connection, truly? And who is the real Elizabeth Lavenza?

‘I have a pretty present for my Victor–tomorrow he shall have it.’ And when, on the morrow, she presented Elizabeth to me as her promised gift, I, with childish seriousness, interpreted her words literally and looked upon Elizabeth as mine–mine to protect, love, and cherish.’

Victor is promised his ‘present’ by his mother on the night before Elizabeth joins the Frankenstein family, but the possessiveness that Victor demonstrates from the beginning is common and expected.

Women in late 18th century Europe had few legal rights: they could not vote or own property, had few rights in marriage and even fewer in divorce, and were extremely limited in regard to education and employment. They were, for all intents and purposes, the possessions of the men in their lives.

The premise of the femme couvert, or ‘covered woman’, guided most gender relationships at this time. The patriarch, or male head of the household, was to provide for, protect, and ‘cover’ the women in his life, especially his wives and daughters.

Elizabeth seems to fit this mold perfectly. She comes into Victor’s household poor and vulnerable, in need of healing and protection. She enables the Frankenstein family to demonstrate their moral virtue (not to mention their economic superiority in taking in the now-destitute daughter of an aristocrat).

Elizabeth becomes for Victor the means to demonstrate his own status as future patriarch. He learns through his relationship with Elizabeth how to take care of his own femme couvert.

‘The saintly soul of Elizabeth shone like a shrine-dedicated lamp in our peaceful home. Her sympathy was ours; her smile, her soft voice, the sweet glance of her celestial eyes were ever there to bless and animate us. She was the living spirit of love to soften and attract.’

In the 18th and 19th centuries the separate spheres theory held that each gender has a unique and God-given domain: the man’s sphere was the public sphere of work, politics, and money-making; the woman’s sphere was the private sphere of the home, of caring for her husband and children.

Elizabeth here is already fulfilling such a role: though as yet unmarried and childless, she is nevertheless the moral center of the Frankenstein home and of Victor’s life. Her loving influence, selflessness, and nurturing spirit form the spiritual heart of the Frankenstein family. She is as angelic as the gender norms, or gender roles and requirements, of her era demand.

Chapter 23 : Literature Sample

It was eight o’clock when we landed; we walked for a short time on the shore, enjoying the transitory light, and then retired to the inn and contemplated the lovely scene of waters, woods, and mountains, obscured in darkness, yet still displaying their black outlines.

The wind, which had fallen in the south, now rose with great violence in the west. The moon had reached her summit in the heavens and was beginning to descend; the clouds swept across it swifter than the flight of the vulture and dimmed her rays, while the lake reflected the scene of the busy heavens, rendered still busier by the restless waves that were beginning to rise. Suddenly a heavy storm of rain descended.

I had been calm during the day, but so soon as night obscured the shapes of objects, a thousand fears arose in my mind. I was anxious and watchful, while my right hand grasped a pistol which was hidden in my bosom; every sound terrified me, but I resolved that I would sell my life dearly and not shrink from the conflict until my own life or that of my adversary was extinguished.

Elizabeth observed my agitation for some time in timid and fearful silence, but there was something in my glance which communicated terror to her, and trembling, she asked, “What is it that agitates you, my dear Victor? What is it you fear?”

“Oh! Peace, peace, my love,” replied I; “this night, and all will be safe; but this night is dreadful, very dreadful.”

I passed an hour in this state of mind, when suddenly I reflected how fearful the combat which I momentarily expected would be to my wife, and I earnestly entreated her to retire, resolving not to join her until I had obtained some knowledge as to the situation of my enemy.

She left me, and I continued some time walking up and down the passages of the house and inspecting every corner that might afford a retreat to my adversary. But I discovered no trace of him and was beginning to conjecture that some fortunate chance had intervened to prevent the execution of his menaces when suddenly I heard a shrill and dreadful scream. It came from the room into which Elizabeth had retired. As I heard it, the whole truth rushed into my mind, my arms dropped, the motion of every muscle and fibre was suspended; I could feel the blood trickling in my veins and tingling in the extremities of my limbs. This state lasted but for an instant; the scream was repeated, and I rushed into the room.

Great God! Why did I not then expire! Why am I here to relate the destruction of the best hope and the purest creature on earth? She was there, lifeless and inanimate, thrown across the bed, her head hanging down and her pale and distorted features half covered by her hair. Everywhere I turn I see the same figure—her bloodless arms and relaxed form flung by the murderer on its bridal bier. Could I behold this and live? Alas! Life is obstinate and clings closest where it is most hated. For a moment only did I lose recollection; I fell senseless on the ground.

When I recovered I found myself surrounded by the people of the inn; their countenances expressed a breathless terror, but the horror of others appeared only as a mockery, a shadow of the feelings that oppressed me. I escaped from them to the room where lay the body of Elizabeth, my love, my wife, so lately living, so dear, so worthy. She had been moved from the posture in which I had first beheld her, and now, as she lay, her head upon her arm and a handkerchief thrown across her face and neck, I might have supposed her asleep. I rushed towards her and embraced her with ardour, but the deadly languor and coldness of the limbs told me that what I now held in my arms had ceased to be the Elizabeth whom I had loved and cherished. The murderous mark of the fiend’s grasp was on her neck, and the breath had ceased to issue from her lips.

While I still hung over her in the agony of despair, I happened to look up. The windows of the room had before been darkened, and I felt a kind of panic on seeing the pale yellow light of the moon illuminate the chamber. The shutters had been thrown back, and with a sensation of horror not to be described, I saw at the open window a figure the most hideous and abhorred. A grin was on the face of the monster; he seemed to jeer, as with his fiendish finger he pointed towards the corpse of my wife. I rushed towards the window, and drawing a pistol from my bosom, fired; but he eluded me, leaped from his station, and running with the swiftness of lightning, plunged into the lake.

The report of the pistol brought a crowd into the room. I pointed to the spot where he had disappeared, and we followed the track with boats; nets were cast, but in vain. After passing several hours, we returned hopeless, most of my companions believing it to have been a form conjured up by my fancy. After having landed, they proceeded to search the country, parties going in different directions among the woods and vines.

I attempted to accompany them and proceeded a short distance from the house, but my head whirled round, my steps were like those of a drunken man, I fell at last in a state of utter exhaustion; a film covered my eyes, and my skin was parched with the heat of fever. In this state I was carried back and placed on a bed, hardly conscious of what had happened; my eyes wandered round the room as if to seek something that I had lost.

After an interval I arose, and as if by instinct, crawled into the room where the corpse of my beloved lay. There were women weeping around; I hung over it and joined my sad tears to theirs; all this time no distinct idea presented itself to my mind, but my thoughts rambled to various subjects, reflecting confusedly on my misfortunes and their cause. I was bewildered, in a cloud of wonder and horror. The death of William, the execution of Justine, the murder of Clerval, and lastly of my wife; even at that moment I knew not that my only remaining friends were safe from the malignity of the fiend; my father even now might be writhing under his grasp, and Ernest might be dead at his feet. This idea made me shudder and recalled me to action. I started up and resolved to return to Geneva with all possible speed.

There were no horses to be procured, and I must return by the lake; but the wind was unfavourable, and the rain fell in torrents. However, it was hardly morning, and I might reasonably hope to arrive by night. I hired men to row and took an oar myself, for I had always experienced relief from mental torment in bodily exercise. But the overflowing misery I now felt, and the excess of agitation that I endured rendered me incapable of any exertion. I threw down the oar, and leaning my head upon my hands, gave way to every gloomy idea that arose. If I looked up, I saw scenes which were familiar to me in my happier time and which I had contemplated but the day before in the company of her who was now but a shadow and a recollection. Tears streamed from my eyes. The rain had ceased for a moment, and I saw the fish play in the waters as they had done a few hours before; they had then been observed by Elizabeth. Nothing is so painful to the human mind as a great and sudden change. The sun might shine or the clouds might lower, but nothing could appear to me as it had done the day before. A fiend had snatched from me every hope of future happiness; no creature had ever been so miserable as I was; so frightful an event is single in the history of man.

But why should I dwell upon the incidents that followed this last overwhelming event? Mine has been a tale of horrors; I have reached their acme, and what I must now relate can but be tedious to you. Know that, one by one, my friends were snatched away; I was left desolate. My own strength is exhausted, and I must tell, in a few words, what remains of my hideous narration.

I arrived at Geneva. My father and Ernest yet lived, but the former sunk under the tidings that I bore. I see him now, excellent and venerable old man! His eyes wandered in vacancy, for they had lost their charm and their delight—his Elizabeth, his more than daughter, whom he doted on with all that affection which a man feels, who in the decline of life, having few affections, clings more earnestly to those that remain. Cursed, cursed be the fiend that brought misery on his grey hairs and doomed him to waste in wretchedness! He could not live under the horrors that were accumulated around him; the springs of existence suddenly gave way; he was unable to rise from his bed, and in a few days he died in my arms.

What then became of me? I know not; I lost sensation, and chains and darkness were the only objects that pressed upon me. Sometimes, indeed, I dreamt that I wandered in flowery meadows and pleasant vales with the friends of my youth, but I awoke and found myself in a dungeon. Melancholy followed, but by degrees I gained a clear conception of my miseries and situation and was then released from my prison. For they had called me mad, and during many months, as I understood, a solitary cell had been my habitation.

Liberty, however, had been a useless gift to me, had I not, as I awakened to reason, at the same time awakened to revenge. As the memory of past misfortunes pressed upon me, I began to reflect on their cause—the monster whom I had created, the miserable dæmon whom I had sent abroad into the world for my destruction. I was possessed by a maddening rage when I thought of him, and desired and ardently prayed that I might have him within my grasp to wreak a great and signal revenge on his cursed head.

Nor did my hate long confine itself to useless wishes; I began to reflect on the best means of securing him; and for this purpose, about a month after my release, I repaired to a criminal judge in the town and told him that I had an accusation to make, that I knew the destroyer of my family, and that I required him to exert his whole authority for the apprehension of the murderer.

The magistrate listened to me with attention and kindness. “Be assured, sir,” said he, “no pains or exertions on my part shall be spared to discover the villain.”

“I thank you,” replied I; “listen, therefore, to the deposition that I have to make. It is indeed a tale so strange that I should fear you would not credit it were there not something in truth which, however wonderful, forces conviction. The story is too connected to be mistaken for a dream, and I have no motive for falsehood.” My manner as I thus addressed him was impressive but calm; I had formed in my own heart a resolution to pursue my destroyer to death, and this purpose quieted my agony and for an interval reconciled me to life. I now related my history briefly but with firmness and precision, marking the dates with accuracy and never deviating into invective or exclamation.

The magistrate appeared at first perfectly incredulous, but as I continued he became more attentive and interested; I saw him sometimes shudder with horror; at others a lively surprise, unmingled with disbelief, was painted on his countenance.

When I had concluded my narration, I said, “This is the being whom I accuse and for whose seizure and punishment I call upon you to exert your whole power. It is your duty as a magistrate, and I believe and hope that your feelings as a man will not revolt from the execution of those functions on this occasion.”

This address caused a considerable change in the physiognomy of my own auditor. He had heard my story with that half kind of belief that is given to a tale of spirits and supernatural events; but when he was called upon to act officially in consequence, the whole tide of his incredulity returned. He, however, answered mildly, “I would willingly afford you every aid in your pursuit, but the creature of whom you speak appears to have powers which would put all my exertions to defiance. Who can follow an animal which can traverse the sea of ice and inhabit caves and dens where no man would venture to intrude? Besides, some months have elapsed since the commission of his crimes, and no one can conjecture to what place he has wandered or what region he may now inhabit.”

“I do not doubt that he hovers near the spot which I inhabit, and if he has indeed taken refuge in the Alps, he may be hunted like the chamois and destroyed as a beast of prey. But I perceive your thoughts; you do not credit my narrative and do not intend to pursue my enemy with the punishment which is his desert.”

As I spoke, rage sparkled in my eyes; the magistrate was intimidated. “You are mistaken,” said he. “I will exert myself, and if it is in my power to seize the monster, be assured that he shall suffer punishment proportionate to his crimes. But I fear, from what you have yourself described to be his properties, that this will prove impracticable; and thus, while every proper measure is pursued, you should make up your mind to disappointment.”

“That cannot be; but all that I can say will be of little avail. My revenge is of no moment to you; yet, while I allow it to be a vice, I confess that it is the devouring and only passion of my soul. My rage is unspeakable when I reflect that the murderer, whom I have turned loose upon society, still exists. You refuse my just demand; I have but one resource, and I devote myself, either in my life or death, to his destruction.”

0:06

I trembled with excess of agitation as I said this; there was a frenzy in my manner, and something, I doubt not, of that haughty fierceness which the martyrs of old are said to have possessed. But to a Genevan magistrate, whose mind was occupied by far other ideas than those of devotion and heroism, this elevation of mind had much the appearance of madness. He endeavoured to soothe me as a nurse does a child and reverted to my tale as the effects of delirium.

“Man,” I cried, “how ignorant art thou in thy pride of wisdom! Cease; you know not what it is you say.”

I broke from the house angry and disturbed and retired to meditate on some other mode of action.

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The Adam has several interfaces for communications and expansion. Power for the system comes from the printer, which uses a single cable to send power to and receive printer signals from the main console, making it difficult to tap into that signal to use a different printer. Next to the printer/power plug on the left side is a standard modular telephone plug marked “Adamnet”; the plug is to be used for an optional modem. Another telephone plug on the front of the console is used to connect the keyboard. On the right side of the system console are two standard nine-pin joystick connectors and a Colecovision expansion interface for attaching Coleco’s add-on modules for its advanced games. Under an easily removable top are three expansion slots, next to the connectors for the installed tape drive and for an optional second drive (see photo 3). Also on top is the Colecovision game-cartridge slot. On either side of that slot are two reset switches: one resets the machine as a computer, the other resets it as a game. The Adam’s peripherals are connected to the main console via a network called Adamnet; each peripheral contains its own 6801 microprocessor. The main system microprocessor is a Zilog Z80A. Four 6801s are used: one as the Adamnet controller and one each in the printer, the keyboard, and the tape drive. Although Coleco has touted the system’s resultant multitasking capabilities, systems delivered to date support only the most rudimentary form of multitasking: while a user plays the Buck Rogers game, the tape drive loads the next video screen. The system cannot work on a separate task while the printer is printing, however.

A personal computer stores its display screen in a section of memory, which is used by a video processor (in this case, the Texas Instruments 9928) to generate a TV image. In most computers, this memory can can be ad dressed by the main processor, and it can be changed using machine language or POKE statements to put the appropriate values into memory locations. In the Adam, however, the 16K-byte video memory is not addressable from the Z80A microprocessor. The 9928 has its own operating-system software to store video information, which can be used either by the Z80A or the 9928, but Coleco provides technical information on this only to licensed software developers. Because this memory is not directly accessible by the system’s main processor, PEEK or POKE commands cannot be used to locate screen information, and screens cannot be transferred using BLOAD or BSAVE commands. Thus, aithough Coleco’s SmartBASIC is partly compatible with Applesoft, programs that use POKE or BLOAD to insert information directly into either the text or high-resolution screen won’t run on the Adam. Because the screen memory in the Adam is not memory mapped as in the Apple, programmers will need more technical information to achieve faster high-resolution graphics action than is possible using BASIC. Coleco said a technical reference manual will be available by early summer. High-Speed Tape

High-Speed Tape System One of the technical breakthroughs that can be seen in the Adam is its low-cost, high-speed digital tape system. Although most hobbyists snobbishly turn up their noses at the mere mention of tape storage, Coleco has done an impressive job on the Adam’s tape drive. To begin with, everything is automatic and transparent to the user. In fact, the tape commands are virtually identical to the disk commands used in Apple’s DOS 3.3, with a few exceptions. One change I dislike is the elimination of the powerful DOS 3.3 EXEC command, which enables ASCII (American National Standard Code for Information Interchange) files to be read in and appended to program files. Because programs are stored in ASCII format, the differences between the LOAD command and the EXЕС command may have seemed to Coleco small enough to abandon the latter. The manual suggests no way to combine two ASCII program files, which is what the EXEC command was used for. Storing programs as ASCII files means they can be easily edited by the word processor, but it also means they require considerably more space on the tape and take longer to load than tokenized programs. The Adam tape drive operates at two speeds: fast and faster. It reads and writes to the tape at a speed of 19,200 bits per second (bps), or 20 inches per second (ips), according to Coleco. In search mode, it scans the tape at 80 ips. “Blank” tapes are preformatted with information that tells the tape drive where the head is currently located, much as information on a floppy disk tells the disk drive at which track and sector the head is located. A catalog stored on the tape indicates where each file is kept. The drive switches to its high-speed search mode to properly position the tape and uses its low-speed mode to read data from the tape.

Although the Adam’s tape drive is uncomfortably slow compared with floppy-disk drives, it operates much faster than any standard cassette-tape drive. The 20-ips speed is far faster than a normal cassette speed of about 1% ips and even faster than the 15-ips speed used for professional recordings. The tape used in the Adam system, although similar in appearance to ordinary cassette tape, differs significantly from it. Several modifications have been made to the plastic cassette shell so that it is not possible to use a standard audiocassette in the Adam computer or place an Adam digital data pack into an ordinary cassette recorder. Changes were also made to the tape media, according to Coleco. When using the Adam data packs, you must take care to be sure they are properly seated in the drive. There is no built-in guiding mechanism to help do this.

The standard Adam comes with one tape drive and room for a second one. But even if you have two drives, it isn’t any easier to make backups, because the operating system does not have a COPY or a BACKUP command.

This can be a serious problem, particularly because SmartBASIC resides on tape and Coleco provides only one copy of it. If humans and computers were perfect, one copy would be sufficient. Because neither is, the inevitable is bound to happen: an important program, or even SmartBASIC, could be lost. Twice, the SmartBASIC file on my tape was somehow damaged. Coleco suggested that it may have been my fault and that the tape may have been damaged by the machine’s magnetic field (see “Two Tales of Adam” on page 212). I think not, but in any case it took several phone calls and a week and a half to get a replacement. It’s apparently a new version. The BASIC filename no longer appears in the catalog, but it loads properly. When benchmark programs were run to see how long it would take to write and read a 64K-byte file to tape, three different data packs caused the Write program to terminate with an I/O (input/output) error (see “Benchmarking SmartBASIC” page 214). A fourth data pack permitted the 64K-byte file to be written to tape, but the file could not be read due to more I/O errors; this problem is most disturbing because there is no warning that the data written out to tape is unreadable.

The ADAM Family Computer System consists of three major components: the memory console, the keyboard, and the printer. The consumer provides his own TV or monitor. Other equipment provided with the system are two “joystick” game controllers, various cords and cables to connect the components, and an antenna switch box. The memory console houses the main memory and CPU of the system, and one data pack drive. Space and connectors are provided for another drive. Two printed circuit boards contain 64K RAM, 16K video RAM, an expansion port, two AdarnNet ports, three card connectors and a cartridge slot. Two additonal printed circuit boards control the drives. The system reads from and stores on digital data packs. Digital data packs are a reel to reel magnetic tape encased in a Lexan cassette. Each data pack can store up to 256K bytes. The keyboard has 75 full travel keys, including ten command keys and six programmable function keys. A “power on 11 LED indicator on the right side of the keyboard shows when the system is on. The keyboard contains one printed circuit board. The printer is a letter-quality, bi-directional, daisy wheel printer. Paper feeds into the printer through a frictionfeed mechanism that accommodates single sheets of paper up to 91/2 inches wide. With the addition of an optional tractorfeed mechanism, the printer also accommodates continuous, “fan-fold” paper. Pitch is 10 characters to the inch, and printing speed is 10 characters per second. The printer contains two printed circuit boards, one for the printer and one for the power supply

Software Overview ADAM’s hardware components are linked together by a 62.5K bps, half-duplex, shared serial bus, known as AdamNet. EDS (Elementary Operating System) is a collection of service routines that provides input and output facilities to peripheral devices, in such a way that application programs need not address the physical characteristics of the peripherals or the operation of AdamNet. EDS also provides file management for manipulating data on mass storage devices. OS 7 is a run-time user’s library of software modules that controls graphics, sound, timing, etc. EOS contains many modules equivalent to OS 7 modules, but some have different inputs and outputs. – ADAM contains a ROM-based electric typewriter/word processor/editor called SmartWRITER. SmartBASIC and the Buck Rogers Planet Of Zoom Super Game are included with Adam on data packs.

The ColecoVision, released by Coleco Industries in August 1982, represents a fascinating chapter in video game history, marking both the pinnacle of the second generation of video game consoles and a bridge to the third generation. This analysis will explore the console’s development, technical specifications, market impact, game library, and lasting influence on the gaming industry.

The early 1980s marked a crucial period in video game history, with the market dominated by the Atari 2600 and Mattel’s Intellivision. Coleco Industries, previously known for their successful electronic handheld games and their earlier Telstar consoles, saw an opportunity to enter the home video game market with a technologically superior system. The company’s president, Arnold Greenberg, recognized that the market was ready for a more sophisticated gaming experience that could more closely replicate arcade games at home.

The development of the ColecoVision was led by Eric Bromley, who had previously worked on Coleco’s handheld electronic games. The team’s primary goal was to create a console that could deliver arcade-quality graphics and gameplay, setting it apart from existing systems. This ambition was reflected in Coleco’s strategic decision to secure the rights to Nintendo’s Donkey Kong as a pack-in game, which proved to be a crucial factor in the console’s initial success.

The ColecoVision’s hardware was impressive for its time, featuring:

• CPU: Zilog Z80A running at 3.58 MHz
• Video Display Processor: Texas Instruments TMS9928A
• RAM: 1KB work RAM, 16KB video RAM
• ROM: 8KB built-in ROM
• Resolution: 256 x 192 pixels
• Color Palette: 16 colors
• Sprite Capabilities: 32 hardware sprites
• Sound: Texas Instruments SN76489A PSG
• Storage: ROM cartridges up to 32KB

These specifications put the ColecoVision significantly ahead of its primary competitors. The Z80A processor was more powerful than the MOS 6507 used in the Atari 2600, and the dedicated video processor allowed for more sophisticated graphics. The system could display up to 32 sprites simultaneously, enabling more complex and detailed game designs than were possible on other contemporary consoles.

The ColecoVision launched with a retail price of $175, positioning it as a premium console option. The inclusion of Donkey Kong as a pack-in game proved to be a masterstroke, as it was one of the most popular arcade games at the time and gave consumers immediate access to a high-quality arcade conversion. The console sold approximately 2 million units in its first year, an impressive figure that demonstrated strong market acceptance.

By the end of its commercial life in 1985, the ColecoVision had sold approximately 6 million units worldwide. While this fell short of the Atari 2600’s numbers, it was a significant achievement for a console with a relatively short market presence. The system’s success was particularly notable given that it launched during a period of increasing market saturation and just before the video game crash of 1983.

The ColecoVision’s game library consisted of approximately 125 officially released titles, with additional games released by third-party developers. The quality of the software library was generally high, with many games being faithful arcade conversions. Notable titles included:

Donkey Kong – The pack-in game that showcased the system’s arcade-quality capabilities Zaxxon – A technically impressive isometric shooter that demonstrated the console’s advanced graphics Venture – An innovative dungeon exploration game Pepper II – A unique maze game with impressive animation Mouse Trap – A Pac-Man-style game with unique mechanics Turbo – A revolutionary racing game with pseudo-3D graphics

The system’s ability to accurately reproduce arcade games was its primary selling point, and many of its titles were regarded as the best home versions available at the time. The console also supported expansion modules, including:

• Expansion Module #1: Allowed playing Atari 2600 games
• Expansion Module #2: Driving controller for racing games
• Expansion Module #3: ADAM computer expansion

The ColecoVision’s physical design was notable for its time. The console featured a wedge-shaped profile that was both aesthetically pleasing and functional, allowing for adequate ventilation. The controllers were innovative but controversial, featuring a numeric keypad and short, mushroom-styled joystick. While these controllers allowed for more complex input options, some users found them uncomfortable during extended play sessions.

The system’s expansion capabilities were forward-thinking, particularly the ability to play Atari 2600 games through an expansion module. This feature showed Coleco’s understanding of the importance of backward compatibility and software libraries, a concept that would become increasingly important in future console generations.

Despite its advanced specifications, the ColecoVision had several technical limitations:

• The controllers were prone to failure and could be uncomfortable during long gaming sessions
• The power supply was internal, making heat dissipation a concern
• The cartridge slot design could sometimes lead to connection issues
• The system lacked dedicated pause functionality in most games
• Memory limitations still restricted game size and complexity

The ColecoVision competed directly with the Atari 2600, Intellivision, and later the Atari 5200. Its technical superiority over the Atari 2600 was clear, but this advantage came at a higher price point. The system’s positioning as a premium console with arcade-quality graphics helped justify its cost to consumers who wanted the best possible home gaming experience.

The video game crash of 1983 significantly impacted the ColecoVision’s market presence. While the console’s quality helped it weather the initial stages of the crash better than some competitors, Coleco’s financial difficulties and the overall market collapse led to the system’s discontinuation in 1985. The company’s focus on the ADAM computer expansion also diverted resources and attention from the gaming console.

The ColecoVision’s influence on the gaming industry extends beyond its commercial lifespan:

Technical Innovation: The system demonstrated the importance of powerful dedicated graphics hardware in console design, a principle that would become standard in future generations.

Arcade Conversion Quality: It set new standards for arcade-to-home translations, showing that faithful conversions were possible with the right hardware.

Expansion Capabilities: The modular expansion system influenced future console designs and demonstrated the value of hardware expandability.

Controller Design: While controversial, the controller design showed the potential for more complex input methods in home gaming.

The ColecoVision has maintained a dedicated following among retro gaming enthusiasts. Original hardware and games are actively collected and preserved, with some titles commanding significant prices in the collector’s market. The system’s relatively small library makes it an attractive target for collectors attempting to acquire complete sets.

Several factors contribute to the console’s collectibility:

• High build quality means many units still function
• Limited production numbers for certain games create scarcity
• The system’s historical significance in gaming history
• The high quality of many games in the library

The ColecoVision has been well-served by the emulation community, with accurate emulators available on multiple platforms. This has helped preserve the console’s library and made it accessible to new generations of players. The relatively straightforward hardware architecture has made accurate emulation possible, though some aspects of the original hardware experience, such as the unique controller, are difficult to replicate perfectly.

Looking back, the ColecoVision represents a crucial transition point in console gaming history. It pushed the boundaries of what was possible in home video game hardware while maintaining a focus on arcade-quality experiences. The system’s commercial success, despite its relatively short lifespan, demonstrated that there was a market for more sophisticated gaming experiences at home.

The console’s emphasis on arcade ports was both a strength and a limitation – while it excelled at providing accurate conversions, it perhaps didn’t encourage enough original game development. However, this focus on arcade quality helped establish standards for home conversions that would influence future console generations.

The ColecoVision stands as a testament to technical innovation in early console gaming. Its brief but significant presence in the market helped establish numerous conventions that would become industry standards. While its commercial life was cut short by external market factors rather than any inherent flaws, its influence on console design, game conversion quality, and hardware expandability continued long after its discontinuation.

The system’s legacy is particularly visible in how it influenced the development of future consoles, especially regarding the importance of strong third-party support, technical capabilities for arcade-quality graphics, and the value of expandability. In many ways, the ColecoVision was ahead of its time, pointing toward a future of more sophisticated home gaming experiences that would eventually become the industry standard.

Because Coleco released it in 1982, historians consider Colecovision a second-generation console, along with the Atari 2600 and Intelivision. Yet the Sega Master System, a third-generation console, used the same CPU and Yamaha derivatives of the same video and sound chips that Coleco used.

In 1982, Colecovision promoted it as a third-generation console. It wasn’t just hype. Comparing it to third-generation consoles, it’s an even match for the Sega console. It had double the CPU speed of a Nintendo NES, but the NES’ 6502-derived CPU was twice as efficient. Effectively the NES and Colecovision had equal CPU power. The Colecovision could display up to 32 sprites to Nintendo’s 64, and 16 colors to Nintendo’s 64, though the NES couldn’t display all 64 colors at once.

So the NES was a slightly better console, but its major advantage was better marketing.

The key argument against the Colecovision as a true third-generation console was its cartridges. Its cartridges topped out at 32KB, where Nintendo and Sega both devised bank switching methods to store 1 megabyte on theirs. Coleco theoretically could have done the same, but left the market before it had reason to try.

Technical specifications

The Colecovision sported an 8-bit NEC D780 processor (compatible with the Zilog Z-80) running at 3.58 MHz and a Texas Instruments chipset: a TMS9928A graphics chip and SN76489A sound chip. The unsuccessful TI-99/4A computer used similar sound and video chips, but a different CPU. Its specifications stack up well against other 8-bit systems of the 1980s:

• 3.58 MHz clock speed
• 256×192 resolution graphics
• 16 colors
• 32 sprites
• 4 voice sound

Both the Colecovision and Sega Master System are very similar to Microsoft’s MSX standard for home computers. MSX used the same CPU and family of graphics chips, but used the General Instrument AY-3-8910 sound chip (the same as in the Atari ST and Mattel Intellivision) instead of a TI chip. Due to the similarities, Spectravideo produced a Colecovision compatibility module for its SV-318 MSX computer.

The Colecovision controllers consisted of a joystick with two buttons and a numeric keypad. But few games required the keypad.

Software library

The Colecovision had a library of about 145 titles produced between 1982 and 1984. This compares favorably with the 133 titles produced for Mattel’s Intellivision, though it’s much less than the 565 titles produced for the Atari 2600. In Coleco’s favor, the general quality of its titles was more consistent than Atari. Coleco produced the majority of the titles, but it did attract third party development from the major publishers of its day, including Activision, Parker Bros, Sierra, and even Atari.

Native Colecovision titles tended to be ports of early 1980s arcade games. Most were reasonably faithful to the original, including a port of Nintendo’s Donkey Kong that was much closer to the arcade version than the Atari version was. The Atari 2600 really struggled with 1982 arcade hits like Donkey Kong and Burger Time.

Coleco did produce an expansion module that made the Colecovision comaptible with Atari 2600 cartridges. Because the two systems used completely different and completely incompatible chipsets, the expansion module was a complete re-implementation of the Atari 2600 console that just used the Colecovision for power and display output. It was a very short step for Coleco to go from producing the expansion module to producing the Gemini console, an outright Atari clone. Atari sued Coleco for patent infringement and the two companies settled, with Coleco paying Atari a royalty on each unit sold.

The Atari lawsuit

Let’s correct a couple of misconceptions about the Atari lawsuit. The Atari 2600 did use off-the-shelf parts, but Atari’s TIA chip was proprietary. Coleco sourced the TIA from VTI, also known as VLSI Technology Inc. VLSI’s clone wasn’t a clean-room implementation like Compaq’s IBM PC clones were. By one account, VLSI simply sliced the chip into four quadrants and moved the quadrants around in its implementation.

Atari didn’t win the lawsuit. Coleco didn’t win either. The two companies settled, with Coleco agreeing to pay Atari a royalty.

Colecovision expansion options

Coleco promised early to deliver an option that it would be possible to expand the Colecovision into a full-blown home computer. They weren’t the first to do this. APF had done the same with its 1978 console, the MP1000. But the time seemed right to try that idea again as computer companies like Commodore targeted game systems, arguing a home computer was more versatile and therefore a smarter buy. And in 1982, critics panned Atari for not doing something similar with the Atari 5200. They seemed to forget APF failed with that approach in 1978-79, but maybe the market was ready for it in 1983.

Coleco’s execution, in the form of the Adam computer, could have been better. The Adam was certainly capable, but quality control issues torpedoed it. Coleco fumbled, but Atari didn’t even try. The idea of computers and game consoles coexisting in the same household was still a few years away.

Coleco also offered arcade-style joysticks, a trackball, and a steering wheel as additional controller options. This provided a more arcade-like experience.

The Colecovision was the first game console designed with significant expandability in mind. This played into its early success, but Coleco’s failed attempt in the computer market made the console lose its advantage.

What might have been with Colecovision

The Coleco Adam computer was supposed to provide insurance for the Colecovision by providing a direct upgrade path. But supply and reliability issues kept it from having much impact on the market.

Coleco’s marketing in 1982 was brilliant. Arcades were extremely popular at the time, and the console was powerful enough to play faithful recreations of most of that era’s arcade hits. The ability to expand into a full-blown computer was also a shrewd move. This provided insurance in case the market shifted away from consoles over to computers.

That’s exactly what happened in 1983, and Coleco wasn’t ready. By June 1983, retailers were saying they’d never seen a market collapse the way video games had. But the Adam computer wasn’t ready so eager consumers couldn’t buy one. Coleco finally released the Adam in September, but not in large quantities and the computer had a high rate of defects.

Had the Adam arrived on schedule and without the defects, Coleco might have weathered the storm. Being able to buy a game console one year and upgrade it to a full-blown home computer in the future would have been an attractive proposition. Maintaining profitability while Commodore cut its prices relentlessly may have been a problem, but Commodore lost a lot of money in 1985 so Coleco might have gotten a reprieve, if they’d been able to stay in the game.

Nintendo would have been another problem. One reason the NES sold so well initially was its Super Mario Bros. launch title, and Coleco didn’t have anything comparable. It’s hard to say whether Sega would have stayed out of the market and contented itself with licensing titles to Coleco, or if Sega would have also entered the US market in 1986. But it’s interesting to wonder what might have been.

1982 was a bad time to be getting into the console market, but Coleco wasn’t the only company to make that mistake. Milton Bradley spent millions to acquire the hot-selling Vectrex at the end of 1982, right before its sales cooled off, and even Emerson tried to get into the game with its Arcadia console.

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(Peer to Peer Journal Knowledge Based Article)

SAP is a proprietary product of the German company SAP AG. SAP was found by five ex IBM employees who had been working in IBM enterprise-wide software division. The name of the employees who found the company was as follows:

They initially started the company as a private partnership under the German System in the year 1972. Their first client was a German chemical company where they developed mainframe programs for payroll and accounting processes. As IBM used to store data on punch cards mechanically they stored it locally and thus they called their software real-time software. [In the earlier 19th-century punch cards were used also called punched cards, IBM cards, or Hollerith cards. In the 19th century, these punch cards were used for controlling textile machines, and then gradually in the 20th century, the punch cards were used as in-unit recording machines for input, processing, and data storage. The punched cards often prepared using keypunch machines as the primary medium for both computer programs and data in the early digital computers.]

Their first commercial product was launched in the year 1973 and was based on the tier system like the one-tier system was called SAP R1 and the two-tier system was called SAP R2 and the three-tier system was called SAP R3.

SAP is basically divided into three layers and they are as follows:

1. Presentation Layer.
2. Application Layer.
3. Storage layer.

SAP R1 had all the above layers in a single tier. This was sufficient when the amount of computations and data is low. As the amount of computations increased the R1 system became slow and they then introduced two tier system. Here in the two tier system the presentation layer is in one tier and the other two layers on the second tier. Depending on the amount of load and computations a single tier out of the two tiers can be allocated to the one of the layers. Then as the amount of computations and data increased and also the SAP software evolved the 2 tier system was also getting slow.

Then SAP system started using the 3 tier system where each layer was placed in individual tier and the approach of distributed and effecting processing was used, thus following the trend from mainframe computing to client/server architectures.

The three tier architecture is as follows:

SAP R/1 started being a financial software. Subsequently, the current MM module was added including purchasing, inventory management, and invoice verification. SAP R/1 was born with two big innovations:

• Being a standard software that could be used for different customers rather than tailoring a solution for each of them. In 1972, there did not exist in the market any software for standardized business processes that could be adopted by many industries.
• Real-time processing. Before SAP R/1, the information processed by the user was sent from the computer and recorded in punch cards. Subsequently, this information was moved from the punch cards to the database through nightly jobs. With SAP R/1, the software was directly connected to the database. Therefore, the data could be processed in real time.

Over the years, SAP R/1 evolved to include other new modules such as Assets Accounting. Finally, in 1979, SAP launched what it is considered their first ERP, SAP R/2. It supported and integrated major business functions in real time. Additionally it handled multi-country and multi-currency implementations. With the innovation of the direct connection to the database, the finance department, for instance, didn’t have to wait until the following day to update the material movements in accounting. Eliminating the need that the material movements were reported by people from the warehouse. Real-time processing was a big revolution.

SAP R/3 – Real-time in desktops

Launched in 1991, SAP R/3 was another revolutionary product. In fact, SAP R/3 was the product that shot SAP to stardom. The application was rewritten to exploit the power of a layered, three-tier architecture approach. You can read more details about the architecture of the SAP installation in this post. SAP R/2 customers were required to migrate to SAP R/3. This was not an update of the product, it was a whole new product.

Let’s contextualize the birth of SAP R/3:

• We are talking about the early years of the graphical user interfaces (GUI). In 1983 Apple launched Lisa, the first computer with a graphical user interface. Windows introduced their operating system Windows at the end of 1985.
• The internet was born in the 1960s. Initially it was only used by the United States Department of Defense. The early 1990s is marked as the beginning of the transition to the modern Internet. The internet was not used in company networks before this time.

Now let’s have a look to the innovations introduced with SAP R/3:

• Adopting client-server concept. This was seen as innovative for an ERP product. From SAP R/3, the installation of the applications was done in the server (application layer). The end-user desktops (clients) were able to communicate to the application layer (write and read information). In the client-server architecture, computers are linked through a network, that was an innovation in the 1990s.

Image: Client – Server concept

• Uniform graphical interface. The introduction of SAP GUI brought about the end of the mono-chromatic, text-based, messy green screens and the start of a new graphical interface. This improved the end user experience. Despite the fact that the Windows Operating System was GUI based, in those years, a significant number of applications running on these operating systems had no graphical user interface (GUI).

SAP Database’s Background

a) Evolution of Databases:

a) Initially limited to flat-file systems.

b) Evolved into relational and object-relational systems.

c) Each type has specific use cases.

b) Early Database Systems:

a) Originated in 1968 as file-based systems.

b) Benefits of SAP included ordered data and convenient storage.

c) Limited by the technology of the time.

d) Allowed data access sequentially, randomly, or by indexing.

c) SAP Database Management System (DBMS):

a) Known for its platform-independent nature.

b) Combines features of Oracle and Informix databases.

c) SAP Modules can be extended like Oracle.

d) Possesses an advanced database engine similar to Informix.

d) Programming Languages and Databases:

a) SAP Database often requires programming language support.

b) Modern languages like Python and Java are commonly used today.

c) Early SQL usage involved third-generation languages like COBOL and BASIC, which predated C.

What are the Different Types of SAP Databases?

There are several types of SAP Databases, all of which we will explore in detail below:

1) Network Database

A Network Database consists of multiple member files or records linked to multiple owner files and vice versa. A Network Database provides multiple owners with various data access paths. The Database can be imagined as an upside-down tree, where the member information represents the branches leading to the owner at the bottom – and every fragment of data is eventually connected to the main data.

Network databases allow more natural modelling of relationships between records and entities. It is also more flexible and accessible, which results in faster search, navigation, and access to data. An example of a network database is SAP HANA, which consists of components that facilitate system communication with the help of networking channels. For a comprehensive understanding of how to optimise these features, a SAP S/4HANA Guide can provide valuable insights into leveraging the full potential of SAP HANA for improved data management.

2) Open-source Database

An Open-source Database has a code that can be accessed publicly and is free to download, re-use and modify. This Database stores important information that organisations control. Users can use the Database to create their systems in accordance with their business requirements and modify the source code according to their preferences.

Users of Open-source Databases do not require any payment for using the code, unlike Commercial Databases, where users pay to use larger datasets or access additional features. These Databases are cost-effective and flexible to use. An example of such an Open-source Database is SAP MaxDB.

3) Object-oriented Database

Object-oriented Database Management Systems (OODBMS) make code easier to manage as they help integrate Database functionality into Object-oriented Programming languages. Such Object-oriented Databases incorporate Relational Database principles. An OODBMS is known to use the following:

1) Objects: Objects are building blocks of classes with either built-in or user-defined types.

2) Class: A class determines the behaviour of an object.

3) Methods: The methods of a class determine its behaviour.

4) Pointer: A pointer helps access elements of an object Database and establish relationships among objects.

Using Object-oriented Databases has several advantages. The advantages include transparency, easy retrieval, seamless integration, and persistent storage. Users are allowed to store all the properties of data objects in the Database, and the Database continues to store them after the program terminates. Upon restarting the program, the Database can retrieve an object with the specified properties. This facilitates the storage and retrieval of complex data objects transparently. For a deeper insight into these capabilities.

4) Cloud Database

A Cloud Database can be defined as a Database hosted on a Cloud server which can be accessed through a web interface or Applicating Programming Interface (API). Much like traditional Databases, these Cloud Databases provide several functionalities.

However, they facilitate secure data storage without the organization investing in expensive hardware. Cloud Databases are known to support Relational Databases such as Structure Query Language (SQL) and NoSQL Databases such as MongoDB. Their common features include the following:

1) Scalability: This feature helps businesses easily manage large volumes of data without affecting the overall performance.

2) Elasticity: This feature means businesses can increase or decrease the number of data nodes per their specific requirement.

3) Security: This feature assures that the data stored in the Cloud is safe from any possible theft or unauthorised data breaches.

4) Redundancy: This feature means businesses can ensure their data despite server failures due to regular backups.

5) Manageability: This final feature means that IT teams can conveniently perform several administrative operations on the Database.

5) NoSQL Databases

NoSQL refers to all the Database technologies which do not use Simple Query Languages as the primary language while accessing data. These kinds of Databases are different from Relational Databases, as they do not require a predefined schema – a feature that makes them great for semi structured or unstructured data. These Databases are often referred to as Non-relational Databases. Some of its features include:

1) Modifiability: Programmers can modify the NoSQL Database in real time.

2) Integrity: Modifying data in this Database does not affect the applications.

3) Versatility: This Database can benefit from technologies like Apache Cassandra, MongoDB, CouchDB, and CouchBase.

What are Some Examples of SAP Databases?

Now that we have discussed what an SAP Database is as well as the types of SAP Databases, we will look at a few examples of SAP Databases now.

1) SAP HANA

SAP High-Performance Analytic Appliance (HANA) is a multi-model Database that facilitates using multiple data models using a single back-end. As with traditional Databases, an SAP HANA Database stores data in its memory rather than on a disk, which facilitates faster data access than Disk or Solid-State Drives (SSD).

The Database supports the search, analytics and integration of structured and unstructured data. It also helps develop smart, insight-driven applications through real-time data, in-memory computing and machine learning. One can access these features both on the Cloud and on-premises.

2) SAP IQ

SAP Intelligent Query (IQ) is a column-based, Relational Database system that facilitates Business Intelligence (BI), data warehousing and data marts. The two principal components of SAP IQ are clients and servers, both of which provide their own features to the Database. The client components provide connectivity, SQL command pursuing, authentication, monitoring and administration via the web. The server components provide features such as column stores, query engines, parallel data loading engines, Database encryption, authorisation and scalability.

3) SAP ASE

SAP Adaptive Server Enterprise (ASE) is a Relational Database server known to handle large volumes of data and users simultaneously. This feature of the SAP ASE Database ensures reliability, accessibility and performance across multiple industries. It also facilitates the processing of mission-critical transactions while maintaining high levels of performance and availability.

These Databases also possess flexible SQL systems that decrease risk and improve agility. The SAP ASE is also resource-efficient, meaning that it helps organisations lower their operational costs.

4) Oracle Runtime Database

Oracle Runtime Database is multi-platform document store which allows you to access data regardless of your device type and its Operating System (OS). This allows clients to work using different programming languages like Android, JavaScript, and iOS while using an instance of a Realtime Database.

Oracle Runtime Database is accessible on both mobile and website platforms. Additionally, it ensures seamless updates with the latest data control features, making it a valuable tool for database management.

5) SAP MaxDB

SAP MaxDB Database is known for the consistent structure of its data. This is possible due to the application data and the metadata within the metadata having a unique name, allowing for consistent formatting.

6) Microsoft SQL Server

Microsoft SQL Server is one of the leading figures in the domain of Databases It is a Relational Database Management tool which is capable of supporting multiple applications. The usage of this server includes transaction, processing, and analysis.

7) IBM Db2

IBM Db2 is a collection of products, which is frequently used for Database Management. Db2 is one of the most popular AI- powered tools in this Database, capable of helping with both structured and unstructured Data Management. The Db2 range of tolls simplify the data handling process, by allowing you to take advantage of AI.

Conclusion

SAP Database stands as a cornerstone for businesses striving to harness the power of data. Its sophisticated architecture and practical applications enable companies to manage vast amounts of information efficiently and access critical data instantly. By mastering this database, businesses can drive innovation, enhance decision-making, and maintain a competitive edge in today’s fast-paced market.

https://pl3group.com/en/sap-the-genesis

 ABAP Dictionary

Purpose

You use the ABAP Dictionary to create and manage data definitions (metadata). The ABAP Dictionary permits a central description of all the data used in the system without redundancies. New or modified information is automatically provided for all the system components. This ensures data integrity, data consistency and data security.

The ABAP Dictionary supports the definition of user-defined types (data elements, structures and table types). You can create the corresponding objects (tables or views) in the underlying relational database using these data definitions. The ABAP Dictionary describes the logical structure of the objects used in application development and shows how they are mapped to the underlying relational database in tables or views.

The ABAP Dictionary also provides standard functions for editing fields on the screen, for example for assigning input help to a screen field.

Integration

The ABAP Dictionary is completely integrated in the ABAP Workbench. The SAP system works interpretatively, permitting the ABAP Dictionary to be actively integrated in the development environment. Instead of the original objects, the interpreters see only internal representations of these objects.

These internal representations are adjusted automatically when the system finds that changes have been made in the ABAP Dictionary. This ensures that the screen and ABAP interpreters, input help, database interface, and development tools always access current data.

When you work on development projects, objects of the ABAP Dictionary can be changed any number of times before being activated and made available to the operative components of the system. Objects can have both an active and an inactive version in the ABAP Dictionary at the same time.

Inactive ABAP Dictionary objects have no effect on the runtime system (ABAP processor, database interface). This permits greater changes to several objects without impairing the executability of the system. The objects can be activated together only when they all have been changed.

ABAP Data Dictionary is the Central source of data of SAP system OR ABAP dictionary is the central core component which supports the creation and management of all the data definitions used in the system. ABAP Dictionary is completely integrated with the ABAP development workbench and is active in the development and run-time environments of the SAP system. This ensures that any changes made in the data definitions results in subsequent changes in the all related ABAP programs, function modules, menu, screen painter or any other application where it has been used.  

The major object types in the Data Dictionary are Database tables, views, data type (data elements, structures, table types), domains, search helps and lock objects. The user can create, modify or delete the data definitions using the above objects.

The SAP R/3 system comes loaded with the basic business functionality usage data objects. However if you want you can create your own data objects as well. These are called as user defined types. But before creating any of user defined data objects ensure that the one you are creating is already provide by SAP or else you might end up duplicating the object and hence inefficiently utilizing SAP’s features.

A brief Introduction ABAP Dictionary Objects

1.  Database Table- A table is multi dimensional matrix which is used to store data. There are 3 layers of data description of ABAP data dictionary which is to isolate the end users and even developers from the underlying database management system. The three layers of data description are:-

•      External Layer – This is the end user view of the database. It mainly consists of how the user sees and interacts with the data. 
•  ABAP Layer – The ABAP/4 layer describes the data formats used by the ABAP/4 processor. This is the developer’s/programmer’s view of the database. 
• Database Layer – It is the DBA view of database. It describes the data formats used in the database.

In R/3 database there are two types of tables:- A. Client Dependent  B. Client Independent

• Client Dependent- Database Tables with their first field name as ‘MANDT’ and type as ‘CLNT’ are client dependent tables.
• Client Independent- All the tables with the first field name is not “MANDT’ are client Independent, or in other words, all the tables which are not client dependent are client Independent.

The data in client dependent table is stored and retrieved based on the client number of the user. This is helpful in the scenario where we want developers and testers data to be different. 

Based on SAP R/3 system there are three types of tables: – A. Transparent Table, B. Pool table C. Cluster Table.

A-Transparent Table: – These tables have the same structure both in the ABAP dictionary as well as in the underlying Database.  It means that there is a one to one mapping between the two and the both the dictionary table and database table shares the same name, number of rows and columns. As we create a Transparent table in the Data Dictionary a similar structure table is created in the underlying database as well.

Transparent tables are mainly used to store application data which is basically the master data or transactional data of table. And mostly, transparent tables are the only one you will create as pooled and cluster tables are not used to store transaction data.

E.g.:- BKPF, VBAK, VBAP, KNA1, COEP etc

B- Pool Table: – A pool table means a pool of tables of the data dictionary representing a single database table. There is a many to one relationship between the data dictionary and database and the names of table in ABAP dictionary are different from the one in database.  Pool tables are used to store system data and system configuration. A Pool table is stored along with other pooled tables in database as table pool.

E.g. of Pool Table: – M_MTVMA, M_MTVMB

C- Cluster Table: – Cluster Tables are similar as the pool tables while the only difference between the two is that all the pool table stored in table pool does not need to have any foreign key relationship but in the case of cluster table it are must. Cluster tables can be used to store control data.  They can also be used to store temporary data or texts, such as documentation.
E.g.  Of cluster table BSEC, BSET, BSEG.

 2.VIEW: – A VIEW in SAP is same as in other programming languages. A VIEW is a table with no contents. A view could also be representation of data from 2 or more logically related tables combined using joins or any other database operations. A View is mainly used to either display data from two or more tables or to project only selected fields of tables. We can use a view either separately (through SE11) or we can use it in any report we create (SE38) There are four types of Views in SAP: –

A.      Database View– A database view is the one which we create to display logically related data distributed among various tables.

B.      Projection view– A projection view is the one which we create to display only selected fields of a table. You cannot define any select conditions or joins in the projection view.

C.      Maintenance View– Maintenance like database view displays application data from multiple tables but the tables in maintenance view must be connected through foreign key relation.

D.      Help View– Help views are created to provide Input Help(F4) for any field in selection screen. Please Note that we can only use Help view if we need to retrieve data from tables combining them using Outer Join.

3.       Domain: – Domain defines the technical attributes of a field such as the data type, length and value range of field. For e.g. A Domain ‘ID’ is of data type ‘Integer’, length ‘4’ and value range 1 to 9999.  

4.       Data Elements: – Data elements define the semantic characteristics of a field. A data element contains field labels and Documentation (F1) of the field. A data element consists of a domain and the short description about the domain for which it is defined.

For e.g. A data element ‘Employee Id’ for employee table has a domain ‘ID’ defined and the short text defined as ‘Employee ID for employee of XYZ company’.

5.       Structure: – Structures are complex data types composed of multiple fields including data elements, table types or other structures. Structures are mainly used when we want to retrieve the records from database tables and alter them for modifying database or for displaying it to users.

6.       TYPE GROUPS – Suppose, we require a group of data types or 2 or more structures or both for more than one programs. Then instead of declaring them individually I each program we can create a type pool or type group of them. Type groups allows us to define the data types or structures in data dictionary.

Significant Study

SAP ABAP focuses on Data Types:

Data Objects in ABAP

A data object in an ABAP program represents a reserved section of the program memory.ABAP knows three types of data objects: Variables, Constants, and Literals

Variables

A variable is a data object with content that can change during runtime. A variable is identified by a name. The name is also used to address the data object at runtime. The starting value of an ABAP variables is always well-defined.

Constants

Constants are similar to variables. But in contrast to variables the value is hard coded in the source code and must not change during runtime. Like variables, constants have a name by which they can be re-used.

Literals

The value of literals is also hard-coded in the source code. In contrast to constants, literals don’t have a name. Because of that you cannot reuse a literal. Only use literals to specify the values for constants and the starting values for variables.

ABAP data objects are always typed: Every data object is based on a data type which determines the kind of information they can contain. The data type of an ABAP data object stays the same throughout a program execution.

Declaration of Variables

A variable in an ABAP program is declared with keyword DATA.

A DATA statement consists of three parts. Let’s look at each part in more detail

DATA

Keyword DATA is followed by the name of the variable. The name of a variable may be up to 30 characters long. It may contain the characters A-Z, the digits 0-9, and the underscore character. The name must begin with a letter or an underscore.

TYPE

The type of the variable is specified after addition TYPE. In the example, built-in types i (for integer numbers) and string (character string with variable length) are used.

VALUE

Addition VALUE is optional and you can use it to specify a start value for the variable. If VALUE is missing, the variable is created with an initial value that depends on the technical type of the variable.

Sources of ABAP Data Types

ABAP offers the following sources of Data Types:

ABAP Built-in

ABAP has a set of 13 predefined data types for simple numeric, char-like, and binary data objects.

TYPES Statement

Statement TYPES allows you to define data types and reuse them in different places, depending on the location of the definition.

ABAP Dictionary

The ABAP Dictionary is a part of the ABAP Repository. Among other things, it manages global data types which are available throughout the system. ABAP Dictionary types not only define technical properties, they add semantic information, for example, labels. ABAP Dictionary types are particularly useful when implementing user interfaces

ABAP Data Types and Variables:

In SAP’s ABAP (Advanced Business Application Programming), data types and variables are fundamental concepts that are used to manage and manipulate data within programs. Understanding these concepts is essential for ABAP developers. Here’s an overview of ABAP data types and variables:

1. ABAP Data Types:

ABAP provides various data types to represent different kinds of data. These data types can be categorized into several groups:

1. Elementary Data Types: These are basic data types that represent single values, such as numbers, characters, and dates.

• I for integer
• F for floating-point numbers
• C for characters
• D for dates
• T for time

2. Complex Data Types: Complex data types represent structured data, such as tables, structures, and internal tables.

• DATA for defining variables of a specified data type.
• TABLE for defining internal tables.
• STRUCTURE for defining structures.
• TYPE for creating user-defined data types.

3. Reference Data Types: These data types are used to store references to objects in memory.

• REF TO for references to data objects.

4. Special Data Types: These data types represent special values or flags.

• X for hexadecimal values (used for binary data).
• STRING for character strings.

5. Logical Data Types: These data types are used for boolean values.

• ABAP_BOOL for boolean data type.

2. Variables in ABAP:

Variables in ABAP are used to store data of different types. Variables must be declared before use. ABAP supports the declaration of variables with various data types, including elementary, complex, and reference types.

1. Variable Declaration:

• Variables are declared using the DATA statement. 

2. Variable Initialization:

• Variables can be initialized at the time of declaration or later in the program.
• Example:

3. Data Type Declaration:

• ABAP allows you to declare variables based on predefined data types or user-defined types.
• Example:

4. Constants:

Constants are variables whose values do not change during program execution.

• Constants are declared using the CONSTANTS statement.
• Example:

5. Scope of Variables:

• Variables can have different scopes, such as local variables (within a subroutine or method), global variables (visible throughout the program), or instance variables (associated with an object in object-oriented ABAP).

3. Type Casting:

ABAP allows type casting or conversion between compatible data types using appropriate conversion functions and operators. Type casting ensures that data is used correctly in operations and assignments.

• Example of type casting:

What are Data Types?

• Think about the different kinds of data we have – characters, text, numbers, and so on.
• For a computer to perform functions on data, it is a much easier process if it falls under a pre-defined category.
• Declaring a type for the data that we have speeds up execution considerably, and also reduces the time identifying data that would have otherwise been spent on producing useful output for the code.

Data Types in ABAP

In ABAP, we have several types of fixed as well as variable data types, as follows:

Complex and Reference Data Types in ABAP

• There are also complex data types in ABAP.
• Complex types are for structures (object made of components stored one after the other in memory) and tables (a 2D structure of rows and columns in which data is stored sequentially).
• For structure types, the primary data types as well as nested structures may be grouped together.
• When these primary types are grouped together, the entire structure can be accessed as one or the individual elements can be retrieved as well – this is known as internal tables in ABAP.

Now let’s see with what parameters these internal tables can be described –

Reference types are the data types used to refer to instances of class, interface and run-time data items. 

Here’s a sample program based on Data Types in ABAP –

EPORT ZR_SS_DATAFLAIR_SAMPLE_001.

DATA text_line TYPE C LENGTH 40.

text_line = ‘Data Flair SAP ABAP Tutorial’.

Write text_line.

DATA text_string TYPE STRING.

text_string = ‘Awesome Tutorial on Data Types by Data Flair’.

Write / text_string.

DATA sample_int TYPE I.

sample_int = -1234.

Write / sample_int.

DATA sample_byte TYPE X.

sample_byte = ‘FF’.

Write / sample_byte.

DATA sample_float TYPE F.

sample_float = ‘3.14’.

Write / sample_float.

Output:

Data Flair SAP ABAP Tutorial

Awesome Tutorial on Data Types by Data Flair

-1234

FF

3,140000000000001E+00

What are Variables?

Now, think about the data to be stored with an example.

• Suppose you want to take an integer as input, add 1 to it, and output the result
• How will you take the input?
• Via keyboard, mouse and so on.
• However, once you receive the input, how will you make sure whatever it is gets added to 1?
•  
• You store it, of course!
• And to store the integer, you need something that would hold the value and ‘vary’ according to what the input is, i.e. you require a variable.

Therefore, a variable is a symbol that holds some data, which can be performed upon by some additional instructions.

Variables in ABAP

• In ABAP, you can create variables according to one data type.
• That is, before creating a variable, you must know what data type it will belong to.
• Similarly, in our above example, we have declared that our input will be an integer.
• Hence, the variable will be an integer variable.

SYNTAX FOR VARIABLE in ABAP

DATA variableName TYPE dataType.

Here,

• Length limit to variable name is 30 characters (max)
• Any data type – elementary, complex or reference can be used in declaration

EXAMPLE FOR VARIABLE in ABAP

DATA dataFlairID Type I.

There are three variable types in ABAP – 

1. Static variables
2. Reference variables
3. System variables

STATIC VARIABLES IN ABAP

• Static variables are variables that are active throughout the block in which they are declared i.e. its lifetime extends from the point of declaration in the block to the end of that block.
• With local variables (described above) the declaration begins with ‘DATA’, for static variables within a class the declaration has ‘CLASS-DATA’ instead.
• Along with ‘CLASS-DATA’ statement, ‘PARAMETERS’ are used to declare linked data objects and ‘SELECT-OPTIONS’ to include selection screens and their internal tables
• Static variables are usually declared within subroutines or function modules.

There are a few rules to follow when naming a variable. Those rules are as follows – 

1. Do not use any ABAP keyword as a variable name

2. Do not use special characters in variable name except underscore ‘_’ used to separate words for easier understanding

3. Don’t try to change names of predefined structures, objects and data

4. Variable name must be lucid and it should easily convey the use without explanation

5. Avoid using hyphens ‘-’ in variable names as they are used in structures

Example of static variables in ABAP:

REPORT ZDataflair_001.

PARAMETERS: NAME(10) TYPE C,

CLASS TYPE I,

ID TYPE P DECIMALS 2,

CONNECT TYPE MARA-MATNR.

WRITE: ID.

Output:

2

REFERENCE VARIABLES IN ABAP

• Reference variables refer to another type, usually elementary data type
• These may refer to a class as well
• They are of dynamic type, whereas in its declaration a static type which is more general is used

Example of ABAP reference variables:

CLASS DATAFLAIRCLASS DEFINITION.

PUBLIC SECTION.

DATA DATAFLAIRDATA TYPE I VALUE 1.

ENDCLASS. DATA: ODATAFLAIRREF TYPE REF TO DATAFLAIRCLASS ,

DDATAFLAIRREF1 LIKE REF TO ODATAFLAIRREF,

DDATAFLAIRREF2 TYPE REF TO I .

CREATE OBJECT ODATAFLAIRREF.

GET REFERENCE OF ODATAFLAIRREF INTO DDATAFLAIRREF1.

CREATE DATA DDATAFLAIRREF2.

DDATAFLAIRREF2→* = DDATAFLAIRREF1→*→ DATAFLAIRDATA.

WRITE: DATAFLAIRDATA.

OUTPUT:

1

SYSTEM VARIABLES IN ABAP

• System variables are ones that can be accessed by all ABAP programs
• Once accessed, they are allotted values by the runtime environment itself
• These values reflect the current status of the system at the given point in time
• The SYST table provides a complete reference to all system variables in ABAP
• The SYST structure, as all structures, comprises elementary components which can be accessed by using ‘SYST-’ or ‘SY-’

Example of ABAP system variables:

REPORT ZDATAFLAIR_001.

WRITE:/’SY-SAPRL’, SY-SAPRL,

/’SY-ABCDE’, SY-ABCDE,

/’SY-HOST ‘, SY-HOST,

/’SY-DBSYS’, SY-DBSYS,

/’SY-TCODE’, SY-TCODE,

/’SY-LANGU’, SY-LANGU,

/’SY-SYSID’, SY-SYSID,

/’SY-MANDT’, SY-MANDT,

/’SY-DATUM’, SY-DATUM,

What are constants?

• A constant is exactly what it sounds like – a constant value.
• We can store a constant under a fixed name, similar to a variable. 
• However, the difference is that you cannot change the value of a constant once it is declared.
• For e.g. if you want to store the value of pi = 3.14, you would use a constant!

• A constant has a value attached to it, which is assigned via its declaration. 
• This value is stored in the program memory. 
• The value attached cannot be changed during the execution of a program – which may lead to a run-time error, and this unchangeable value can be considered a literal.

Output:

The post Write up on Tech Geek History: SAP ABAP-Data Dictionary appeared first on DayDreamin’ Comics.

Who was Judas Iscariot?

 Like other names we have studied, Judas was a common name in the day. Judas is a form of “Judah,” one of the 12 sons of Jacob and one of the 12 tribes of Israel.

 There were a few Judases in Jesus’ life. He had a brother named Judas. He had another disciple also named Judas, likely the brother of James. And then there was Judas Iscariot. Why is he called “Iscariot”? Last week we saw that Mary Magdalene meant Mary from the town of Magdala. That was easy. Iscariot is more challenging.

 It may mean he was from the town of Kerioth, but that is unlikely. It may mean he was part of the secret resistance group sicarii, which means “dagger-bearer.” They were a kind of underground resistance group against the Romans.

 Sicarrii sounds like Iscariot, but nobody knows, so it is merely speculation. Here’s what we do know – very few new parents are choosing to name their son Judas. What is much known is the character of the man. His reputation is defined by his betrayal of Jesus.

 • Every list of disciples lists Judas last

 • The one list in which he is not last is the one where he is not mentioned at all (Acts 1:13)

• When Judas is named, typically it is also stated what he did to Jesus “Simon the Zealot, and Judas Iscariot, who betrayed him.” (Matthew 10:4) “…and Judas Iscariot, who betrayed him.” (Mark 3:19) “…and Judas the son of James, and Judas Iscariot, who became a traitor.” (Luke 6:16)n

Literature Review :

JESUS TEACHES JUDAS ABOUT COSMOLOGY: THE SPIRIT AND THE SELF-GENERATED

 Jesus said, “[Come], that I may teach you about [secrets] no person [has] ever seen. For there exists a great and boundless realm, whose extent no generation of angels has seen, [in which] there is [a] great invisible [Spirit], which no eye of an angel has ever seen, no thought of the heart has ever comprehended, and it was never called by any name. “And a luminous cloud appeared there. He said, ‘Let an angel come into being as my attendant.’ “A great angel, the enlightened divine Self-Generated, emerged from the cloud. Because of him, four other angels came into being from another cloud, and they became attendants for the angelic Self-Generated. The Self-Generated said,

[48] ‘Let […] come into being […],’ and it came into being […]. And he [created] the first luminary to reign over him. He said, ‘Let angels come into being to serve [him],’ and myriads without number came into being. He said, ‘[Let] an enlightened aeon come into being,’ and he came into being. He created the second luminary [to] reign over him, together with myriads of angels without number, to offer service. That is how he created the rest of the enlightened aeons. He made them reign over them, and he created for them myriads of angels without number, to assist them.

 ADAMAS AND THE LUMINARIES

 “Adamas was in the first luminous cloud that no angel has ever seen among all those called ‘God.’ He [49] […] that […] the image […] and after the likeness of [this] angel. He made the incorruptible [generation] of Seth appear […] the twelve […] the twenty four […]. He made seventy-two luminaries appear in the incorruptible generation, in accordance with the will of the Spirit. The seventy-two luminaries themselves made three hundred sixty luminaries appear in the incorruptible generation, in accordance with the will of the Spirit, that their number should be five for each. “The twelve aeons of the twelve luminaries constitute their father, with six heavens for each aeon, so that there are seventy-two heavens for the seventy-two luminaries, and for each [50] [of them five] firmaments, [for a total of] three hundred sixty [firmaments …]. They were given authority and a [great] host of angels [without number], for glory and adoration, [and after that also] virgin spirits, for glory and [adoration] of all the aeons and the heavens and their firmaments.

THE COSMOS, CHAOS, AND THE UNDERWORLD

“The multitude of those immortals is called the cosmos— that is, perdition—by the Father and the seventy-two luminaries who are with the Self-Generated and his seventy two aeons. In him the first human appeared with his incorruptible powers. And the aeon that appeared with his generation, the aeon in whom are the cloud of knowledge and the angel, is called [51] El. […] aeon […] after that […] said, ‘Let twelve angels come into being [to] rule over chaos and the [underworld].’ And look, from the cloud there appeared an [angel] whose face flashed with fire and whose appearance was defiled with blood. His name was Nebro, which means ‘rebel’; others call him Yaldabaoth. Another angel, Saklas, also came from the cloud. So Nebro created six angels—as well as Saklas—to be assistants, and these produced twelve angels in the heavens, with each one receiving a portion in the heavens.

 THE RULERS AND ANGELS

 “The twelve rulers spoke with the twelve angels: ‘Let each of you [52] […] and let them […] generation [—one line lost—] angels’: The first is [S]eth, who is called Christ. The [second] is Harmathoth, who is […]. The [third] is Galila. The fourth is Yobel. The fifth [is] Adonaios. These are the five who ruled over the underworld, and first of all over chaos. THE CREATION OF HUMANITY “Then Saklas said to his angels, ‘Let us create a human being after the likeness and after the image.’ They fashioned Adam and his wife Eve, who is called, in the cloud, Zoe. For by this name all the generations seek the man, and each of them calls the woman by these names. Now, Sakla did not [53] com[mand …] except […] the gene[rations …] this […]. And the [ruler] said to Adam, ‘You shall live long, with your children.’”

Who was Seth?

“And Adam knew his wife again, and she bare a son, and called his name Seth: For God, said she, hath appointed me another seed instead of Abel, whom Cain slew.” – Genesis 4:25

Supporting Texts:

Genesis 5:3-8, 1 Chronicles 1:1, Luke 3:38, Hebrews 11:6

INTRODUCTION:

Seth was the third recorded son of Adam and Eve, born after the tragic murder of Abel by Cain. His birth was seen as God’s provision of another righteous seed to continue the godly lineage that Abel would have carried forward. Unlike Cain, who walked in rebellion, Seth became the foundation of a lineage that sought after God.

His life was significant because through his descendants came Enoch, Noah, Abraham, and ultimately, Jesus Christ. Seth represents a divine replacement, a second chance, and a continuation of God’s redemptive plan. The Bible records that during his lifetime, men began to call upon the name of the Lord, showing his spiritual impact.

This study explores Seth’s role in biblical history, his godly legacy, and the lessons believers can learn from his life.

1. SETH WAS A DIVINELY APPOINTED SON

Seth’s birth was a sign of God’s mercy and restoration.

a) His name means “appointed” or “compensation”

Eve recognised that Seth was given by God as a replacement for Abel (Genesis 4:25).

b) He was a continuation of the godly lineage

While Cain’s descendants followed the path of sin, Seth’s line preserved faith in God (Genesis 5:3-4).

c) His birth was a sign of hope for humanity

After the fall and Abel’s murder, Seth’s arrival brought renewal (Genesis 3:15).

d) He was a chosen vessel in God’s divine plan

Through Seth’s lineage, God preserved the promise of redemption (Luke 3:38).

e) Biblical Example: Other Divinely Appointed Sons

Isaac was divinely appointed as Abraham’s promised child (Genesis 21:1-3).

2. SETH CONTINUED THE GODLY LINEAGE

Unlike Cain’s descendants, Seth’s family honoured God.

a) He fathered Enos, who initiated public worship

The Bible states that during Enos’ time, men began to call upon the Lord (Genesis 4:26).

b) His lineage included righteous men

From Seth’s line came men of faith like Enoch, Noah, and Abraham (Genesis 5:6-32).

c) His descendants preserved the knowledge of God

While the world became corrupt, Seth’s line upheld God’s ways (Genesis 6:9).

d) He lived in contrast to Cain’s descendants

While Cain’s family embraced wickedness, Seth’s family pursued righteousness (Genesis 4:16-24).

e) Biblical Example: Other Godly Lineages in Scripture

The lineage of David led to Jesus Christ (Matthew 1:1-16).

3. SETH LIVED A LONG AND FRUITFUL LIFE

His life reflected God’s blessing upon the righteous.

a) He lived for 912 years

Seth’s long life symbolised divine preservation (Genesis 5:8).

b) He had many sons and daughters

His children expanded the godly lineage on earth (Genesis 5:7).

c) His longevity signified God’s grace

Before sin fully corrupted humanity, men lived long lives (Genesis 6:3).

d) He contributed to the population of the earth

Seth’s descendants played a key role in human expansion (Genesis 5:4-5).

e) Biblical Example: Other Men Who Lived Long Lives

Methuselah, the longest-living man, reached 969 years (Genesis 5:27).

4. SETH’S DESCENDANTS WERE MEN OF FAITH

His family line produced men who walked closely with God.

a) Enoch walked with God and was taken to heaven

Enoch was Seth’s great-great-grandson and never saw death (Genesis 5:24).

b) Noah was righteous in a corrupt world

Noah found grace in God’s eyes and was chosen to build the ark (Genesis 6:8-9).

c) The lineage led to the Messiah

Jesus Christ was born from Seth’s bloodline (Luke 3:38).

d) His descendants stood against the corruption of the world

They maintained faith while Cain’s descendants drifted further into sin (Genesis 6:1-2).

e) Biblical Example: Other Generations That Preserved God’s Promise

The lineage of Judah led to King David and Jesus (Genesis 49:10).

5. SETH REPRESENTS GOD’S PLAN OF REDEMPTION

His life foreshadows God’s restoration plan through Christ.

a) He was a type of Christ as a righteous seed

Just as Seth replaced Abel, Christ came as the second Adam (Romans 5:19).

b) His family preserved true worship

Through Seth’s line, people continued calling on God (Genesis 4:26).

c) His descendants overcame the corruption of the world

Despite widespread sin, Seth’s lineage remained faithful (Genesis 6:9).

d) He represents God’s mercy in the midst of judgment

Even after sin entered the world, God continued His plan of redemption (Genesis 3:15).

e) Biblical Example: Other Foreshadows of Redemption

Joseph’s life symbolised Jesus’ future suffering and exaltation (Genesis 50:20).

6. STRENGTHS OF SETH

Seth exhibited godly qualities that made his lineage unique.

a) He was divinely appointed by God

His birth was a sign of God’s sovereignty (Genesis 4:25).

b) He established a heritage of faith

Seth’s son named Enosh, and several generations later a descendant named Enoch. Enoch is described as living 365 years, and that “Enoch walked faithfully with God; then he was no more because God took him away” (Genesis 5:24). This seems to be saying that Enoch didn’t physically die, that like the prophet Elijah, God simply took him directly to heaven. Enoch’s son Methuselah lived 969 years, which makes him the oldest man mentioned in the Bible (possibly the oldest man ever). Genesis 5:28 establishes that Noah was Methuselah’s grandson, which makes him a direct descendant of Seth. Seth’s ancestry is also mentioned in 1 Chronicles 1:3, which starts by mentioned Seth and the several ancestors leading to Noah, then describes the family branches created by Noah’s three sons.

Since Noah’s family was the only one that survived the flood, this means that Seth’s direct family line survived God’s punishment, whereas Cain’s family line did not. Given that the Bible cites Cain’s family having some dysfunction—Cain murdering a brother, Lamech being a polygamist, and killing a stranger—this may suggest Seth’s family followed God more closely.

Significance of Study

The “foundation” of a new line was through Seth. HE was the continuity. And the line of Seth was not cut off as happened with the death of Abel, but Enosh was born to Seth. Therein lies the continuity of the messianic line that follows thereafter to others in that line: Enoch, Methuselah, Noah, and Noah’s son – Shem, all a part of the messianic line leading ultimately to the Messiah. 

Thus, fulfilling the promise of Genesis 3:15, Jesus shows up in Eve’s promised offspring who will crush the serpent’s head.

Judas Isacriot Practiced:

The Sethians were an early Christian sect who equated Adam’s son Seth with Christ (which the Gospel of Judas explicitly does on manuscript page 52). The Sethians had a very dualistic view of spirit as good and matter, including the physical body, as evil. In fact, that’s why Judas is seen as good – Jesus tells him “you will sacrifice the man that clothes me,” i.e., his physical body (manuscript page 56).

Those of us who believe in the traditional Christian view of the incarnation do not view Jesus’ body as evil, nor do we view our own bodies as evil. Our bodies are the temple of God, not the prison of the soul as the Sethian Gnostics believed. Our bodies, like all of God’s creation, are holy.

Gnostics accorded Seth a mythological status. He was a pre-existent divine being. Along with the Great Invisible Spirit (the Father) and Barbelo (the Mother), the Son— the Self-Created One— ruled the aeons of the Pleroma. The Pleroma refers to the spiritual universe where God dwells in accordance with all the other divine powers and emanations. The Father of this triad was responsible for the inbreathing of the divine Spirit into Adam. The Mother was Eve (a Sophia/wisdom figure), and the Son (Seth) was the Logos (the Christ). This would be the essence of their sacred history.

Together, the written documents reveal at their core five basic points. (1) They are drawn from Hellenistic-Jewish understandings of Sophia, which is divine wisdom in its elemental, fallen, and restored states. (2) They have a unique exegesis of Genesis 1-6, which sees a sacred history in Seth’s seed. (3) They include the practice of baptism as a removal from the material world and a transporting into the realm of light. (4) They include an emerging Christology wherein Christ is related to Seth. (5) They reflect the influence of Pythagorean and Platonic metaphysical concepts that define the world of the divine and the means of integrating with it.

It is believed that Sethianism existed before the first century of the Common Era. As a non-Christian sect, they believed they had the primeval knowledge about Adam and Seth, and they anticipated Seth’s messianic return. The Apocalypse of Adam might have been written at this time. In this Gnostic text, Adam explains to Seth that he learned about the Eternal God from Eve. After the fall, he and Eve were separated, but three mysterious strangers brought about Seth’s birth in an attempt to preserve this knowledge. Adam prophesies at length about how the sub-god will attempt to destroy mankind, but eventually a great illuminator (Seth) will return. This illuminator will know the eternal truth and will confer a saving baptism.

During the latter part of the first century, Sethians came into contact with Christian baptismal groups. It wasn’t too difficult to make the connection between Seth and the pre-existent Christ. Seth is now thought of as a supernatural being. The Apocryphon of John was probably written during this time. It describes the resurrected Jesus returning to give secret knowledge to the apostle John. This knowledge includes a lengthy vision about the history and realm of the spiritual world.

The next hundred years, however, resulted in an increasingly estranged relationship between Sethanismand Christianity, which was becoming more codified and orthodox. The Coptic Gospel of the Egyptians (otherwise known as The Holy Book of the Great Invisible Spirit) was probably written during this time. This book explains how Seth is incarnated as Jesus, who was sent to release people from the prison of this earthly world.

By the third century CE, Christians had pretty much rejected Sethianism. Yet, it was still very popular with those interested in the metaphysical aspects of Platonic thought. The representative text would be Allogenes, whose author was given revelations about overcoming fear and ignorance.

By the latter part of the third century, Sethianism was breaking apart. No longer embraced by orthodox Platonists and rejected by Christians, Sethianism became fragmented into many sectarian gnostic groups, some of which lasted well into the Middle Ages. In later decades, Sethians proclaimed a slightly more positive view about the material world, but continued to elaborate and expand upon the various planes of existence, including all the sub-spiritual realms.

Sethians, then, were a very important Gnostic sect. They believed themselves to be direct descendants of Adam and Eve through Seth. Since Seth was the keeper of secret knowledge, his followers (Sethian Gnostics) were the only ones who had the true knowledge. Seth was seen as a savior-figure who was incarnated as Christ.

However, the higher Gods didn’t leave humans in complete servitude to Yaldabaoth. The angel Gabriel gave an additional spirit or the spark of divinity to the saved people (i.e. the Gnostics). In the Gospel of Judas Jesus notes: “God caused knowledge to be brought to Adam and those with him so that the kings of Chaos and Hades might not rule over them.

 In a different Sethian text called the Secret Book of John, “the appearance of the Child is portrayed in such a way as to suggest an act of spiritual intercourse between the transcendent Father and Barbelo the Mother” (p. 147). Nowhere is the Virgin Mary mentioned. Seth is the child of Adam and Eve; at the same time, Seth is Jesus, the child of two eternal, all-powerful beings, the Father and Barbelo.

Instead, The Gospel of Judas begins just before Jesus’ last Passover in Jerusalem as the disciples are offering a prayer to God over the dinner table. Watching them do this, Jesus laughs at them. Interestingly enough, in none of the canonical Gospels does Jesus ever laugh. But in The Gospel of Judas he laughs often, usually a sardonic how-little-you-know kind of laugh. The disciples become furious with Jesus for laughing at them; all except Judas, who says to Jesus, “I know who you are and where you have come from. You are from the immortal realm of Barbelo.” Who is Barbelo, you may ask? In ancient Gnostic texts, Barbelo is the Divine Mother of all and the Forethought of the Infinite One. Confused? If you are at all familiar with the story of Jesus, you should be. But things only get more obscure and confusing as you continue reading the text.

Because of Judas’ “knowledge” that Jesus comes from “the immortal realm of Barbelo,” he is promised a revelation “about secrets no person has ever seen.” Cutting to the chase, here is the last part of the “revelation” that the Gnostic “Jesus” gives to Judas. 

The post Write up on Judas Isacriot and Seth (Searching for Eden Part 3) appeared first on DayDreamin’ Comics.

John Carter of Mars by Edgar Rice Burroughs has influenced many science fiction and fantasy works, including characters, subgenres, and films:

Characters

John Carter is considered an ancestor of many other sci-fi heroes, including Buck Rogers and Flash Gordon. George Lucas has also credited Star Wars to the inspiration of Flash and Buck, calling it “almost the grandchild of John Carter”.

Subgenres

Carter’s adventures helped create the Planetary Romance subgenre, which focuses on the wonders and dangers that adventurers encounter on other planets. These stories often combine elements of science, magic, and fantasy, and feature strange creatures and exotic settings.

Literature Review

Edgar Rice Burroughs (1875–1950), best known as the creator of the Tarzan books, also wrote a popular science fiction series featuring the thrilling adventures of John Carter of Mars (and Virginia). The eleven books deal with the exploits of Captain Carter, a Confederate officer who left his native state of Virginia after the Civil War and headed west to prospect for gold. He found ore worth millions but was attacked by Apaches before he could mine it. He escaped to a mysterious cave, fell asleep and awoke to find that he had been transported to Mars, a dying planet inhabited by warring kingdoms. Displaying great courage and skill, Carter rose to the position of Warlord, after battling giant rats, headless humans, and a deadly radio beam known as the Gridly Wave.

The first of the John Carter books appeared in 1917, and ten sequels followed over the next three decades, further developing Burroughs’s vision of the mysterious red planet, known to its local inhabitants as Barsoom.

This was the first novel penned by Edgar Rice Burroughs. It was written when he was 36 years old after he had failed at nearly everything he had done in life. It tells the story of an Earth man’s adventures among strange races on Mars. The Earth man’s name is John Carter, and Mars is called Barsoom. The first title of this novel was, “Under the Moons of Mars.”

There are two main groups of beings in this novel. The green Martians are the bad guys, odd beings with four arms and tusks growing out of their faces. The red Martians are the good guys, human-like, and John Carter falls in love with one of them, Dejah Thoris, his Princess of Mars. Everyone fights and loves in a strange environment. The most amazing thing about the novel is the fact that it is quite a good one even after most of a whole century has gone by.

This is an early science fiction novel published in 1912 in a pulp magazine called “The All-Story Magazine” before science fiction was called by that name. Burroughs is one of the grandfathers of the genre. Outer space novels like this one were published by Jules Verne and H.G. Wells, but most writers at the time kept their characters firmly planted on terra firma.

A Princess of Mars is a cliffhanger, so you have to read the next two novels of a trilogy to find out what happens in the end. These novels are called, “The Gods of Mars” and the “Warlord of Mars.” Incredible as it may sound, these two novels are as good as the first one. The Mars Trilogy of Edgar Rice Burroughs may not be one of the treasures of Western Civilization, but it can make time pass pleasantly on this planet. Most writers should be so lucky.

____________________________________________________

The Backstory

Edgar Rice Burroughs died in 1950, two years after the publication of Llana of Gathol. Two novellas from the Mars series remained orphaned, having only appeared in magazines: “The Skeleton Men of Jupiter” and “John Carter and the Giant of Mars.” It wasn’t until 1964 that Canaveral Press published them together under the deceivingly archetypal title John Carter of Mars.

The tale behind “The Skeleton Men of Jupiter” is simple enough. After success selling the four novellas that made up Llana of Gathol, Burroughs started another quartet. He wrote the first installment in October–November of 1941. Because of the U.S. entrance into World War II and Burroughs’s work as a correspondent, he never wrote the other three parts. After failing to sell “Skeleton Men” to Blue Book, Burroughs set it up at Amazing Stories for the February 1943 issue.

“John Carter and the Giant of Mars” is an entirely different matter. Whitman Publishing approached ERB to write a John Carter story for their “Better Little Books,” a children’s series of books with alternating pages of illustration and text. Burroughs agreed (he had already written some Tarzan stories for the series), and assigned his son, John “Jack” Coleman Burroughs, to handle the illustrations. An expanded version of this story appeared in the January 1941 issue of Amazing Stories, where it immediately sparked a reader outcry of “fake!” (If the Internet existed then, the storm on forums and blogs would have been a Level 5 tornado.) Fans of Burroughs thought the style was wrong, sounding nothing like their beloved author. That it was written in third person from John Carter’s point of view, something never seen before, furthered suspicions. In Amazing’s letter column, the editor reassured his readership that this was exactly the manuscript as received from Edgar Rice Burroughs, and no one at the magazine had tampered with it.

It turns out, however, that the fan outcry was justified. In 1964, Burroughs’s son Hulbert revealed the truth: ERB had only a minor role in crafting the story, which was otherwise the work of Jack Burroughs. The special requirements of a Whitman Better Little Book — an illustratable scene on every page — made the author uncomfortable, so it was natural for the artist to write the story instead. Although “John Carter and the Giant of Mars” still has the name Edgar Rice Burroughs on it, it is almost entirely the work of his son. The version printed in Amazing and subsequently in Canaveral’s John Carter of Mars is 5,000 words longer than the 15,000-word Whitman Book version.

The Story

The two stories have no connection to each other, and no framing device tries to pretend that they are anything other than separate entities.

John Carter and the Giant of Mars: A mysterious figure named Pew Mogel kidnaps Dejah Thoris and offers to release her in exchange for control over Helium’s iron works. John Carter tracks Pew Mogel to the abandoned city of Korvas, where he finds that Pew Mogel is a synthetic creation of Ras Thavas (the titular Master Mind of Mars) with a legion of various Barsoomian beasties under his command. He also built his own synthetic creation: Joog, a hundred and thirty-foot giant. (He had a free afternoon, I guess.) Pew Mogel plots to destroy Helium with his armies, and only John Carter and a pack of Martian rats attached to parachutes can stop him! No, really.

The Skeleton Men of Jupiter: The ruling race of Jupiter (“Sasoom” in the language of Mars), the skeletal Morgors, plot an invasion of the Red Planet with Helium as their first target. Using a soldier of the Martian city of Kor named U Dan as their tool, the Morgors lure John Carter into a trap and whisk him to Jupiter on a spaceship. To further convince him to aid them in their invasion, they also kidnap Dejah Thoris. John Carter allies himself with the Savator, the oppressed race of Jupiter, and a rebel Morgor, Vorion, to save his love. Carnivorous plants and fights in an arena are involved.

Deja Thron: Character Analysis

Dejah Thoris

Dejah Thoris is a fictional character created by Edgar Rice Burroughs, serving as the Princess of Helium and a central figure in the Barsoom series of science fiction novels set on a dying Mars. Introduced in the 1912 novel A Princess of Mars, she is depicted as a red Martian noblewoman captured by the green Tharks during a scientific expedition, where she encounters and eventually marries the Earthman John Carter after he rescues her from various perils.^[1][2]Physically, Dejah Thoris is described as possessing a slender, girlish figure akin to that of earthly women, with an oval face of exquisite chisel, large lustrous eyes, light reddish copper skin, crimson cheeks, ruby lips, and flowing coal-black hair arranged in a distinctive Martian coiffure; she adorns herself with ornate jewelry rather than clothing, emphasizing her symmetrical and beautiful form.^[1] As the daughter of Mors Kajak, Jed of Lesser Helium, and granddaughter of Tardos Mors, Jeddak of Helium, she embodies the proud lineage of a thousand jeddaks, blending royal dignity with interests in atmospheric science and diplomacy.^[1][2]Throughout the Barsoom series, Dejah Thoris evolves from a damsel in distress to a resilient partner and mother, giving birth to Carthoris and Tara with John Carter while facing threats like abduction and political intrigue that test her courage and loyalty to Helium.^[2] Her character highlights themes of interspecies alliance and heroism, wielding a dagger as her primary weapon and often aiding in diplomatic efforts to unite Barsoom’s fractured nations.^[1][3]

Character Description

Physical Appearance and Traits

Dejah Thoris is depicted as a statuesque Red Martian woman with smooth, light reddish-copper skin that contrasts vividly with her crimson cheeks and ruby lips. Her face is oval and exquisitely beautiful, featuring finely chiseled features, large lustrous eyes, and a mass of coal-black, waving hair styled in an elaborate coiffure that falls to her shoulders. Like other Red Martians, she possesses no body hair except on her head, and her teeth are notably white, contributing to an idealized portrayal of beauty in Barsoomian terms.^[1]Her physique is slender and girlish, with a perfect symmetrical figure that emphasizes grace and poise, standing erect with head held high despite appearing frail compared to the towering green Martians. Red Martians, including Dejah Thoris, are bipedal humanoids with two arms and two legs, differing from the four-armed green natives, and they have small, cup-shaped antennae slightly above the eyes for ears and longitudinal slits for noses, differing from human anatomy. She is typically portrayed naked except for minimal jewelry and harnesses—such as highly wrought metal ornaments and a silken scarf—reflecting the cultural norms of Helium where clothing is ornamental rather than covering.^[1]Biologically, as a Red Martian, Dejah Thoris reproduces by laying eggs; females produce about thirteen eggs annually, from which the finest are selected for incubation in specialized vaults for five years before hatching. This oviparous process underscores the ancient, enduring nature of Barsoomian life, with individuals potentially living up to a thousand years. Early illustrations by J. Allen St. John for Edgar Rice Burroughs’ novels accentuate her regal bearing and dignified posture, portraying her with an air of noble authority amid the alien landscape.^[1][4]

Personality and Abilities

Dejah Thoris is portrayed as an intelligent and resourceful figure, well-versed in Barsoomian science and history, often demonstrating her knowledge through explanations of planetary phenomena and technology. In A Princess of Mars, she recounts details of ancient Martian civilizations, the construction of canals, and atmospheric research during scientific expeditions led by her lineage, showcasing her expertise as a royal educated in these fields.^[5] Her understanding extends to radium-based technologies, which power much of Barsoomian infrastructure, including light sources and engines, as implied by her familiarity with expeditionary tools and the radium mechanisms in key facilities like the atmosphere plant.^[6] This scientific acumen is complemented by her skill in navigation, evident when she draws precise maps of Barsoom’s waterways and air currents to aid escapes and journeys.^[7]Courage and loyalty define her core traits, with Dejah frequently displaying resilience in captivity and devotion to her loved ones. Captured by green Martians in A Princess of Mars, she maintains dignity before threats from leaders like Tal Hajus, signaling for aid with composure rather than despair.^[8] Her loyalty manifests in appeals for peace on behalf of her people and unwavering commitment to John Carter, declaring her willingness to share his fate even in death.^[9] In The Gods of Mars, this loyalty persists through years of separation, as she grieves the presumed loss of their son Carthoris for a full year before regaining strength, and later attempts suicide to avoid dishonor when seized by black pirates, underscoring her brave adherence to personal and cultural codes.^[10][11] Wit and strategic thinking further highlight her personality; she employs sharp humor in conversations, persuades allies like Sola to join escapes with promises of better futures, and negotiates delays with foes using charm and foresight to protect Helium.^[12][7][13]As a skilled combatant and pilot, Dejah evolves into an active adventurer capable of wielding weapons and commanding vehicles. Though initially reliant on rescue in A Princess of Mars, she intervenes physically to shield John Carter during confrontations, implying trained prowess with Barsoomian arms like swords.^[14] Her piloting abilities are rooted in royal training, as she participates in airship expeditions charting Barsoom’s skies, and later demonstrates proficiency in maneuvering fliers during pursuits and battles across the series.^[5] In The Gods of Mars, her strategic counsel urges John Carter toward broader duties, prioritizing Helium’s defense over personal reunion, reflecting tactical acumen honed by her position.^[15]Dejah’s portrayal begins as a princess in distress but develops into an empowered participant, challenging early 20th-century gender norms by embodying strength and agency for her era. From her debut captivity, where she transitions from passive victim to collaborative planner—convincing allies and mapping routes—she grows into a figure who actively influences outcomes, such as negotiating with enemies and directing forces.^[7][13] Maternal instincts emerge prominently with her children, Carthoris and Tara; in The Gods of Mars, her year-long grief over Carthoris’s disappearance reveals profound protective devotion, while her role as Tara’s mother in later tales like The Chessmen of Mars underscores nurturing guidance amid Barsoom’s perils.^[10] This evolution positions her as a pioneering strong female lead, blending vulnerability with capability in Burroughs’s fiction.^[2]

Publication History

Creation and Inspiration

Dejah Thoris was created by American author Edgar Rice Burroughs in 1911 as the central female character in his debut science fiction novel, initially drafted under the working title Dejah Thoris, Martian Princess. This manuscript, an unfinished version of approximately 43,000 words, marked the inception of the Barsoom series set on a fictionalized Mars, where Dejah Thoris serves as the princess of the city-state of Helium. Burroughs, then 36 years old and working as a pencil-sharpener salesman after a series of unsuccessful business ventures and jobs, began writing the story amid personal financial difficulties that included supporting a wife and young children.^[16][17]The character’s development drew from contemporary astronomical speculations, particularly those of Percival Lowell, whose observations of Martian “canals” and theories of a dying, civilized planet inspired Burroughs’ depiction of Barsoom as a harsh, ancient world with advanced yet decaying societies. Burroughs incorporated elements of pulp adventure fiction prevalent in early 20th-century magazines, blending swashbuckling heroism, exotic locales, and interplanetary romance into a narrative framework that emphasized exploration and conflict among diverse Martian races. His own military experience, including service as a cavalryman in the Seventh U.S. Cavalry after failing the West Point entrance exam, influenced the portrayal of resolute, capable protagonists navigating perilous environments, though Dejah Thoris embodies a blend of regal authority and vulnerability tailored to the era’s adventure tropes.^[18][19][17]In early drafts and revisions, Dejah Thoris emerged as a symbol of exotic allure, her beauty and poise contrasting the brutal Barsoomian landscape while driving the plot through her captivity and alliance with the human protagonist John Carter. Burroughs revised the manuscript extensively before submitting it to *The All-Story* magazine, where it was serialized from February to July 1912 as Under the Moons of Mars under the pseudonym Norman Bean, transforming the initial focus on her as the titular figure into a broader tale of Martian adventure. This evolution in Burroughs’ notes and outlines highlighted her role as an idealized, otherworldly heroine, reflecting his intent to captivate readers with a mix of scientific wonder and romantic escapism during a period of professional reinvention.^[16][17]

Original Publications and Evolution

Dejah Thoris debuted in Edgar Rice Burroughs’ science fantasy story serialized under the pseudonym Norman Bean as “Under the Moons of Mars” in *The All-Story* magazine, running from February to July 1912.^[20] The narrative introduced her as the princess of Helium, central to the adventures of protagonist John Carter on the planet Barsoom. This serialization marked Burroughs’ breakthrough into professional fiction writing.^[21]The story was revised and published in book form as A Princess of Mars in 1917 by A. C. McClurg & Co., establishing the Barsoom series and solidifying Dejah Thoris’ role as a recurring character.^[22] She features prominently in the subsequent novels The Gods of Mars (serialized in The All-Story in 1913; book edition 1918) and The Warlord of Mars (serialized in The All-Story in 1914; book edition 1919), where her captivity and rescue drive key plot elements.^[23] Dejah Thoris receives mentions in later Barsoom works, including Thuvia, Maid of Mars (1920), The Chessmen of Mars (1922), and extending to Synthetic Men of Mars (serialized in Argosy in 1939–1940; book edition 1940), often referenced as John Carter’s consort and mother to their son Carthoris.^[2]Over time, the Barsoom novels evolved from their original pulp magazine formats to hardcover editions, with Burroughs making minor adjustments to dialogue and structure for book publication, though no major overhauls occurred during his lifetime.^[24] Later reprints by publishers introduced subtle edits for contemporary sensibilities, but the core texts remain faithful to the originals. The early volumes of the series, including A Princess of Mars, are in the public domain in the United States due to expired copyrights (not renewed after the initial term).^[25] The success of these publications, contributing to over 100 million copies sold of Burroughs’ works worldwide, enabled him to transition to full-time authorship following the 1912 serialization.^[26]

Role in Barsoom Literature

Debut in A Princess of Mars

Dejah Thoris is first introduced in Edgar Rice Burroughs’s 1912 novel A Princess of Mars as the Princess of Helium, a noble red Martian from the city-state of Helium, who is captured by the nomadic Thark horde after her airship is attacked during a scientific expedition to rechart air currents and test atmospheric density.^[1] Transported to the Thark city of Korad as a prisoner alongside the human protagonist John Carter, she is described as possessing a slender, girlish figure akin to earthly women, with an air of regal distress that immediately captivates Carter.^[1] Carter, having been similarly captured upon his mysterious arrival on Barsoom (Mars), intervenes when a Thark warrior strikes her, killing the aggressor and declaring himself her protector against future threats.^[1]Throughout their captivity among the brutal, green-skinned Tharks, Dejah Thoris demonstrates her scientific acumen by educating Carter on key aspects of Barsoomian society and technology, including the vital atmosphere factories that harness the ninth ray to generate the planet’s air and water, without which life could not be sustained.^[1] She explains the intricacies of Martian culture, from the hierarchical city-states like Helium and Zodanga to the existential threats posed by the dying planet’s thinning atmosphere.^[1] As they face shared perils, including torment from the vengeful Thark woman Sarkoja—who plots against them and attempts to sabotage their safety—their mutual reliance fosters a deepening romantic bond, marked by cultural clashes between Carter’s human values of chivalry and Dejah Thoris’s Martian nobility.^[1] This relationship culminates in their escape from the Tharks, a journey to Helium, and their marriage, which implies the conception of their son Carthoris through the Martian reproductive process involving an egg.^[1]Dejah Thoris’s royal status as Helium’s princess propels the central conflict, as her capture prompts a massive search by Helium’s fleets and draws her into escalating dangers, including an abduction scheme by the Zodangan prince Sab Than and eventual imprisonment by the cannibalistic Holy Therns in the Valley Dor.^[1] Carter’s daring rescues—from thwarting Sarkoja’s schemes to leading an assault on Zodanga with Thark allies and infiltrating the Thern domain—underscore her pivotal role in driving the plot toward themes of inter-species romance, where love bridges the divide between an Earthman and a Martian, and cultural confrontations between savage nomads, warring city-states, and deceptive priesthoods.^[1] Her resilience and intellect not only aid their survival but also highlight the novel’s exploration of heroism amid Barsoom’s harsh, alien environment.^[1]

Appearances in Subsequent Novels

In The Gods of Mars (1918), Dejah Thoris enters the forbidden Valley Dor, believing John Carter to be dead after his long absence, only to be captured by the Therns and held as a slave in their temple city of Issus.^[27] Carter eventually reunites with her in the valley, where she reveals the birth of their son, Carthoris, during his exile on Earth, emphasizing her enduring loyalty and maternal resolve as they navigate the perils of the Thern society together.^[27] Her imprisonment underscores her willingness to risk everything for love, while her interactions with Carter highlight a deepening partnership beyond mere romance.Dejah Thoris’s role expands in The Warlord of Mars (1919), where she is abducted by the Therns and confined within the Temple of the Sun alongside Thuvia of Ptarth and Phaidor, daughter of the Black Pirate.^[28] As Carter mounts a daring rescue across Barsoom’s hostile landscapes, Dejah Thoris demonstrates her combat prowess and strategic acumen, actively participating in the assault on the temple and the ensuing battles against the First Born by using improvised weapons such as manacles and rallying forces during the conflict that secures the overthrow of Issus and the liberation of captives.^[28] This installment portrays her not as a passive victim but as a formidable ally.She makes brief but significant cameos in Thuvia, Maid of Mars (1920), appearing primarily as the mother of Carthoris, who embarks on his own adventures, and offering counsel that reflects her status as a wise figure in Helium’s royal family. Similarly, in The Chessmen of Mars (1922), Dejah Thoris features in opening scenes at the Helium court, where she engages in leisurely pursuits like playing jetan with Carter and advises their daughter Tara before her perilous journey, reinforcing her role as a stabilizing political and familial anchor.In Swords of Mars (1936), Dejah Thoris is kidnapped from Helium by the black pirate Fal Sivas’s agents and taken to the moon Thuria, where she faces threats from the cannibalistic Ombrans and the pirate’s schemes. John Carter pursues her across space, infiltrating the pirate stronghold and engaging in battles to rescue her, highlighting her continued importance as a catalyst for Carter’s adventures and her resilience in captivity.^[29]Dejah Thoris appears in Synthetic Men of Mars (1940), where she sustains a severe injury in an airship collision, prompting Carter to seek the expertise of the master surgeon Ras Thavas to save her life.^[30] Upon her recovery, she remains in Helium while Carter leads the confrontation against the synthetic hormads created in Ras Thavas’s laboratories. Throughout these later novels, her character evolves from a primary romantic interest into a co-adventurer and influential Jeddara of Helium, embodying resilience, intellect, and command in the royal court while supporting Carter’s campaigns against interstellar dangers.^[2]

Plot Summary

John Carter, a captain in the Confederate army, goes prospecting in Arizona after the end of the Civil War. Carter and his business partner run into trouble with Apache warriors, and the partner is killed. Carter is pursued by the Apaches and ducks into a cave to hide. In the cave, Carter is overcome by a mysterious mist and is transported to the planet Mars.

On Mars, Carter has superhuman strength and agility due to the difference in the planet’s gravity. Shortly after arriving on Mars, or Barsoom as it is called by its habitants, Carter is captured by a tribe of green Martians called the Tharks, and he becomes the responsibility of Tars Tarkas, the tribe’s second in command. The Tharks are a warlike race who stand 15 feet tall and have six limbs. Carter is taken before the community of Tharks, and one of the chiefs harasses him. Carter hits the chief and inadvertently kills him. In the custom of the Tharks, Carter inherits the dead chief’s title and rights, thus becoming a Tharkian chief himself.

Carter soon learns that the Tharks live as a community where possessions are all shared. The Tharks do not have romantic relationships or marry, but instead procreate for the sole purpose of repopulating the community. The females lay eggs. Each year only the most perfect are allowed to hatch in enormous incubators. The rest are destroyed. Offspring are raised as common children of the community and are not shown any love. They are taught how to fight, and if they are found to be defective, they are killed.

Tars Tarkas assigns a female named Sola to find food and shelter for Carter. She also teaches him how to speak the language and use Thark weapons. Carter develops a telepathic ability, but while he can read the minds of others, they cannot read his. Carter is surprised to find that Sola is secretly kind and caring, a stark difference from the other Tharks. While Carter’s living conditions are comfortable, as a prisoner, he is not allowed to leave the tribe.

As Dejah Thoris is being questioned in a community assembly, she is hit in the face by a Tharkian leader. Carter immediately fights and kills this Thark. Carter asks that Sola be responsible for Dejah Thoris instead of Sarkoja, the angry and spiteful Tharkian woman who has been watching her.

Sarkoja, filled with hate and anger toward both John Carter and Dejah Thoris, plots to have Carter killed by another Thark. She almost succeeds. Sola gets hurt in the process.

Knowing that she can trust Carter, Sola confides in him that unlike other Tharks, she knows who her parents are. She tells him that her parents secretly fell in love and while her father, Tars Tarkas, was sent off on an expedition, her mother, Gozava, had an egg and kept it hidden. After Sola was hatched, Gozava met her secretly at night, cared for her and showered her with affection. Sarkoja discovered both mother and child and reported them to Tal Hajus, the Tharkian chieftain. Gozava quickly hid Sola with the other Tharkian children just before she was arrested and killed by Tal Hajus. When Tars Tarkas returned from the expedition, he found out his love was dead and didn’t know what happed to his child. He has been plotting to kill Tal Hajus ever since.

Carter knows that Tal Hajus plans to kill Dejah Thoris, so he escapes with her and Sola in an attempt to get her back to Helium. The trio crosses paths with the green Martians of Warhoon, and Carter allows himself to be captured so Sola and Deja Thoris can get away and continue on to Helium.

After Carter escapes from Warhoon, he stumbles onto an “atmosphere factory,” a facility that provides breathable air for all of Barsoom. He begs the factory’s keeper to let him in, and he does. The keeper soon regrets helping Carter and plots to kill him. Carter telepathically hears the man’s thoughts as well as the access code to open the facility’s doors. Carter manages to escape to Zodango, a city-state that is at war with Helium.

Carter learns that Dejah Thoris and Sola are prisoners in Zodango. Believing that Carter is dead and desperate to stop the war that is destroying Helium, Dejah Thoris agrees to marry Sab Than, the prince of Zodango. When Carter tries to rescue Dejah Thoris, she tells him that he is too late. She has made a promise to Sab Than, and according to her people’s customs, she cannot break it.

Carter leaves for Helium, determined to get help in saving Dejah Thoris. Along the way, he gets lost and ends up in the middle of a battle between the Tharks and a rival tribe. Carter saves Tars Tarkas, and after the battle ends, Carter tells Tars Tarkas the same story that Sola told him about Gozava. Tars Tarkas confronts Sorkoja, who fleas rather than face death. He also challenges Taj Hajus to a battle and kills him, thus becoming the chieftain of the Tharks.

Tars Tarkas agrees to help Carter in the war between Zodango and Helium, and also enlists the help of rival tribes, resulting in a massive army of green Martians marching across the desert to Zodango. The army attacks Zodango, killing both Sab Than and his father. No longer under an obligation to marry another, Carter asks Dejah Thoris to marry him and she agrees.

Leaving some of the green Martians to loot and burn Zodanga, Carter, Tars Tarkas and Deja Thoris take the rest of the army to Helium to fight the war raging there. They defeat the Zodangan fleet both in the air and on the ground, and Deja Thoris is finally reunited with her family.

After the war, the Tharks and Helium forge new bonds of peace and friendship. John Carter and Dejah Thoris marry and for nine years, Carter serves and fights as a prince of Helium.

Helium gets news that the atmosphere factory has malfunctioned; the keeper is dead, and no one can get into the facility. The people of Barsoom have only days to live. When only an hour of breathable air remains, Carter remembers that he knows the code to open the facility’s doors, allowing a worker to get inside. Carter asphyxiates before knowing if the factory was repaired and wakes up in the cave in Arizona.

Broken and sorrowful, Carter spends the next 10 years wondering what happened to his life on Mars. He prays that somehow he will be taken back to the red planet

A PRINCESS OF MARS, SUMMARIZED

“Edgar Rice Burroughs” describes first meeting his uncle, Captain John Carter, at the family’s Virginia plantation prior to the Civil War. With the outbreak of war, Carter joined his regiment and was not seen again for 15 or 16 years. He returned unexpectedly, unchanged except for an expression of misery when he thought he was alone. Carter stated he had prospected for gold in Arizona, apparently successfully. He moved to New York (1877), where he built a cottage. The author visited Carter once a year during business trips to the North, and noted he often stand on a bluff overlooking the Hudson staring at the sky.

On March 4, 1886, in response to a telegram, the author visited him for the last time, and was told on his arrival that the captain had been found dead that morning. Reaching the cottage, Burroughs opened his uncle’s safe and found in it his uncle’s will, a manuscript, and instructions concerning the burial. In accordance with these, he removed the body to the tomb his uncle had built. The tomb was well ventilated and fitted with a lock that could be opened only from the inside.

Chapter 1 – On The Arizona Hills

Captain Carter introduces himself. He does not know how old he is, but has always appeared to be about thirty. After the end of the War, he and Capt. James K. Powell of Richmond, set out for the Southwest to prospect for gold. Late in the winter of 1865, they discover a rich vein of gold in the White Mountains of Arizona. Powell sets out to purchase mining equipment and hire miners to work the claim while Carter remained behind.

Shortly after his departure on March 4, 1866, Powell was attacked and killed by a band of Apaches. Carter singlehandedly attacked the Indians’ encampment, rescued his friend’s body, and was pursued to a cave where he was trapped. Despite his efforts to remain on guard against the approaching war party, he was overcome by lethargy and fell unconscious to the floor.

Chapter 2 – The Escape of the Dead

Carter, aroused from his fainting spell by the sound of approaching hoof beats, found that he was paralyzed. He noticed a pungent odor of some vapor. The Apaches halted at the entrance to the cave and, on hearing a low moan from the depths of the interior, fled in panic, leaving Powell’s body on the ledge just outside the cave mouth.

Paralyzed for several hours, Carter heard soft movement behind him. A strange moan was repeated some time after midnight, along with a rustling like dead leaves. In his struggle to break the paralysis, Carter felt a sharp snap and suddenly he found himself standing over his body, naked as the day he was born. He emerged onto the ledge to look out onto the moonlit scene before him. His gaze is drawn to the red orb of Mars. Stretching his arms toward it, he feels an instant of extreme cold and utter darkness.

Chapter 3 – My Advent on Mars

Carter awakes on a moss-like sward and knows beyond a doubt he must be on Mars. Rising, he bounces 10 feet into the air due to the lower gravity. A nearby low-walled enclosure with glass roof contains several hundred eggs almost 3 feet in diameter; hatching scrawny olive green creatures with two arms, two legs, and an intermediary set of limbs that function as either. The creatures have slits for nostrils, protruding eyes, and snow-white tusks.

Twenty adults of the same species arrive. They are 15 feet tall and armed with swords, spears and strange rifles; each rides a monstrous eight-legged mount. Threatened by a spear, Carter energetically jumps backwards, clearing 100 feet! Astonished, the green Martians capture Carter instead of killing him.

Chapter 4 – A Prisoner

Carter is carried across a dry sea bed to the plaza of an ancient, crumbling city where 800 or 900 green children and adults are found. The Tharks, his captors, live 1,000 years but the majority die young in battle. Those reaching incipient old-age take a pilgrimage down the river Iss and never return. That Martians live so long has caused fierce competition for the planet’s diminishing resources.

Inside a white marble building inlaid with gold and gemstones John Carter notes the furnishings are appropriate for beings his height. Tars Tarkas, the Thark second-in-command, introduces Carter to the chieftain, who demands Carter demonstrate his jumping skills. Heading for the door, Carter slips and falls repeatedly. A warrior insults Carter and the earthling punches the creature. Waiting for retaliation, Carter is startled when the Tharks laugh and applaud.

In the plaza Carter amazes himself and his captors by leaping 150 feet and returning. Hungry and thirsty, he refuses to perform until they feed him. A female, Sola, takes him to sleeping quarters. She summons a Shetland pony-sized ceature with frog-like head and jaws equipped with three rows of long, sharp tusks.

Chapter 5 – I Elude My Watchdog

After Sola leaves him alone in the chamber, John Carter ponders the strange anomalies so far encountered: his guardian Sola, a Martian watchdog, the large plant that provided both food and drink, and the sudden onset of nightfall on Mars. Innately curious and prone to seek adventure, Carter tests the role of his watchdog by leaving the building. The animal stays with him to the edge of the city. Carter realizes that the only means to escaping his loyal, ferocious protector is his unique ability as a jumper. Landing on a sill 30 feet above the ground, Carter’s exultation is short-lived when he falls into the grasp of a colossal ape-like creature.

Chapter 6 – A Fight That Won Friends

The white ape-like creature and its mate are physically similar to the six-limbed green Martians. Carter is saved from the female beast’s stone cudgel when his myriad-legged Martian protector arrives to hurl itself upon the ape. Sensing that his watchdog is losing ground in the ensuing ferocious battle, John uses the fallen cudgel to smash the head of the ape. He could easily elude the attack by the bull creature, but Carter’s sense of duty will not allow him to desert his loyal watchdog. Carter employs earthly fighting tactics with the cudgel to finish off the second ape-creature. The Earthman’s victory is witnessed by the green Martians, winning their grudging applause. He also wins the devotion of Sola and his badly wounded Martian watchdog by saving the animal from destruction by Tars Tarkas’ gun.

Chapter 7 – Child-Raising on Mars

After breakfast in the dead city, John Carter, Sola and Woola the watchdog, accompany a huge caravan of chariots and armed mounted warriors to the hatching ceremony at the isolated tribal incubator. Every five years, the best 500 eggs presented by the females are selected for a five-year incubation process in the solar heated, sealed incubators. The Earthman watches as the green Martians claim their fully-formed, four-feet-tall offspring. Sola claimed a young male to whom she would teach the barbaric skills necessary to survive the cruel existence of dying Mars. Under Sola’s tutelage, both Carter and the child soon learned the spoken language and developed the mental powers needed for the universal Martian language of telepathy.

Chapter 8 – A Fair Captive From the Sky

The green Martians are interrupted in their departure from the dead city by the arrival of a fleet of airships. The warriors’ deadly gunfire cripples the surprised fleet, sendingt them into disastrous retreat, leaving one unmanned foundering craft. The Tharks board and plunder the craft of its cargo of arms, valuables, supplies and a lone prisoner: a small two-legged creature. The looted airship is torched and set adrift. Carter, feeling a kinship for the defeated enemy, obtains a closer look at the prisoner. He is startled to find a naked, black-haired, copper-skinned girl of exquisite beauty. Her eyes filled with hope when she sees him. Making a hand signal he does not understand, the dejected captive gives Carter a look of contempt as her captors drag her away.

Chapter 9 – I Learn the Language

Carter is awarded the rank of chieftain and is tutored by Sola on life and customs of the green Martians. He learns the language and discovers that Sola is of kinder disposition than other green Martians because of her sympathies for the red captive.

Chapter 10 – Champion and Chief

Carter learns that he has freedom to all but leaving the city; Woola would prevent him. His friendship with the beast overrides Woola’s training, making him devoted follower rather than guard.

Carter attends a hearing of the red captive conducted by Lorquas Ptomal and learns that she is Dejah Thoris, a princess of Helium. She claims she was captured while on a scientific mission regarding the planet’s air supply. When a young warrior knocks her to the ground for her speech, Carter kills him. He is awarded the dead warrior’s possessions but warned that he is still a prisoner. He claims Dejah Thoris as his own charge and brazenly exits the hearing with her.

Chapter 11 – With Dejah Thoris

Carter informs the Tharks that Dejah Thoris will be cared for by Sola. He warns Sarkoja to keep her distance. The threat caused more harm than good, Martian males never kill women. Carter is ranked 11th among chieftains. Sola explains the customs and traditions of the Tharks. She suggests how Carter might best Lorquas Ptomel and become chief among chiefs.

New quarters are arranged for Dejah Thoris. The princess of Helium inquires into Carter’s origin, afraid that he might be from Valley Dor. Although she did not understand Carter’s explanation that he was from earth, she trusted and believed him. Surprisingly, she was familiar with the earth. There are instruments on Mars that transmit images from far away planets. She had seen many earthly images during her life. They examined the chamber decorations during which Dejah Thoris explained the 3 great races of Mars and how they were forced to mix producing the present red race.

A messenger summons Carter to the presence of Lorquas Ptomel.

Chapter 12 – A Prisoner With Power

Lorquas Ptomel believed Carter had returned from Valley Dor and intended to see him dead, but would not do so without a trial, unless Carter were to attack him or try to escape. He spoke with pride of having captured the granddaughter of the jeddak of Helium. Later, Carter deduces that only Sarkoja could be responsible for passing information to Lorquas Ptomel, and bends his efforts to the thought of escape. He intended to save Dejah Thoris from the horrible fate that awaited her.

Carter takes quarters with Tars Tarkus, a building next door to Deja Thoris. Several young Tharks enter bearing loads of weapons, silks, and utensils. They had been the retinue and possessions of 2 chieftains slain by Carter (Dotar and Sojat) and were now his to command. They were not a family unit as the Tharks have no wives and mating is coordinated by community chieftains, resulting in a people without love, though virtue and honor are known. Carter sends them to quarters above and pays little attention to them thereafter.

Chapter 13 – Love-Making On Mars

John Carter spends several days learning the ways of a Thark warrior and training his savage Martian mounts. He mixes kindness with discipline, which results in his thoats being more manageable than any other in the Thark herd. Tars Tarkas has Carter explain his training methods to the other warriors. Lorquas Ptomel gives John Carter an anklet of gold in appreciation.

John Carter finally has a chance to speak with Dejah Thoris again. During the conversation she calls him “my chieftain.” Not realizing the significance of those words he innocently replies “my princess.” Dejah Thoris appears startled; however, she laughs it off calling him a child. When asked to explain she refuses, except to say when he learns to remember she smiled. As they walk in the moonlight, John Carter touches Dejah Thoris and realizes he loves her and has since the first moment he saw he

Chapter 14 – A Duel To The Death

During their continued conversation John Carter sticks his foot in his mouth. Dejah Thoris becomes angry and refuses to speak to him. Afterwards he berates himself for being a fool in love.

On the encampment’s journey to Thark, John Carter is outraged because Sarkoja has chained Dejah Thoris. He complains to Tar Tarkas, who eventually removes the chains. Later, Carter sees Sarkoja plotting with a warrior named Zad.

The next day Zad challenges John Carter. During the sword duel a flash of light momentarily blinds Carter. He sees Dejah Thoris knock a shiny object from Sarkoja’s hand then sees Sarkoja try to stab Dejah Thoris. Sore pressed by Zad, he feels the Martian’s sword at his breast. Thinking he is about to die, Carter lunges at Zad, determined to kill him. As Zad’s sword enters his chest, John Carter loses consciousness.

Chapter 15 – Sola Tells Me Her Story

John Carter recovers from unconsciousness and retrieves his sword from the body of Zad. Applauded by the watching green martians, John Carter returns to his chariots and retinue who treat him with healing salves miraculously returning him to full health. Checking on Dejah Thoris’s chariot he encounters Sola, who has a flesh wound from Sarkoja’s dagger. Dejah is grieving for the apparent death of John Carter. Sola promises to reassure Dejah Thoris and to later tell the story of how she knew her own parents.

John Carter rides on thoat at Tars Tarkas’ side as whole cavalcade moves off. The vast horde makes it way across the dead sea bottoms of Barsoom, splendidly and stealthily. At the night camp John Carter visits Sola and the sleeping Dejah Thoris. Sola tells her parent’s story, an intricate and moving tale, and at last reveals that Tars Tarkas is her father.

Chapter 16 – We Plan Escape

The journey to Thark is uneventful, taking around 20 days. Dejah Thoris continues to ignore John Carter. They arrive at Thark where 30,000 green martians are ruled by Tal Hajus, their Jeddak. Carter gains new quarters. He spies Woola and joyously they are reunited. He meets with Dejah Thoris to discuss escape and a truce. Sola interrupts with news that Sarkoja has convinced Tal Hajus to sentence them to the calots! Carter and Dejah Thoris suggest to Sola she escape with them to Helium and a happier life. Sola fears they cannot escape the Tharks. Dejah Thoris draws a map and Carter suggests a roundabout route to Helium. They agree to leave Thark that night by thoat. Splitting up, the women head for the city gates while John Carter sneaks through the city and obtains two thoats. Arriving at the rendezvous, John Carter waits. He realizes something has happened. Carter backtracks to Dejah Thoris’s quarters through abandoned courtyards. He overhears warriors planning to disarm, capture and deliver him to Tal Hajus. Dejah Thoris is already his prisoner.

Chapter 17 – A Costly Recapture

John Carter seeks the whereabouts of Dejah Thoris and Sola under cover of darkness when they fail to rendevous according to plan. He finds them in an immense hall in the clutches of Tal Hajus and a roomful of warriors. After Tal Hajus orders the room cleared of warriors, he speaks to Dejah Thoris of her torture to come. John Carter immediately knocks the Jeddak unconscious and together the three make good their escape from the city of Thark.

Ill-prepared without food or water, they flee toward the hills on weakened thoats. Eluding parties of Thark warriors sent to recapture them, a lone warrior spots them in a valley. Carter sends Dejah and Sola on their way and leads their party of pursuers astray to prevent his beloved’s recapture. Carter is eventually caught and knocked unconscious after a struggle.

Chapter 18 – Chained In Warhoon

John Carter regains consciousness and learns he was saved for the great games. Securely bound, he is taken before Bar Comas, Jeddak of Warhoon. He witnesses a fight to the death after an argument over his future between the Jeddak and a subordinate, Dak Kova.

Dak Kova kills Bar Comas. Carter is taken to the city of Warhoon where he is thrown into a dungeon, chained to a wall in utter darkness. Lanquishing for days or weeks—-he does not know how long—-amid the terrors of slithering and crawling things, John Carter eventually overpowers and kills the jailer and loosens his chains. Backing into a corner of the dungeon, he watches six pairs of gleaming eyes slowly approaching him.

Chapter 19 – Battling in the Arena

The jailer’s carcass, and keys, are dragged way. Days later Kantos Kan is imprisoned with Carter. The red man reveals 700 Helium warships with 2,000 lesser vessels are searching for Dejah Thoris. The martian, on one man flier, was captured exploring Warhoon. Dak Kova, green jed, orders the start of 10 days of games, wherein captives were pitted against fearsome beasts and each other until only one survives each day, the survivor being granted freedom. At day’s end Carter and Kantos Kan, the survivors, fight until dark, then fake Carter’s death. That night Carter sneaks out of the amphitheater into the hills beyond.

Chapter 20 – In the Atmosphere Factory

Carter waits two days in the hills east of Warhoon, but Kantos Kan does not arrive. He treks northeasterly for two weeks, surviving on plant milk. His telepathic sense warns him when vicious predators are about, but he is eventually attacked and losing a battle with a hairy, multi-legged large animal when Woola saves him. Starving, a day later Carter arrives at the 4 square mile, 200 foot high atmosphere plant. Carter and Woola are let into the building, fed, and the American speaks with the keeper for some hours. Carter does not reveal he can read the old man’s mind, or that he has learned the mental combination of the great doors to the building. Reading the old man’s mind, Carter learns he is to be killed, thus he and Woola steal away during the night. The following day Carter approaches a farm and is accepted by the three brothers who own it. He is given a red dye for disguise, some Zodangan currency, and a domesticated thoat.

Chapter 21 – An Air Scout for Zodanga

As John Carter travels toward Zodanga he hears that Dejah Thoris is dead, but isn’t convinced. He arrives at Zodanga, and has to part with Woola so as not to draw attention to himself. Upon entering Zodanga he meets Kantos Kan. He tells Carter that Dejah Thoris is the prisoner of Sab Than, prince of Zodanga, who is in love with her. His father, Than Kosis wants her to marry his son as the price of peace, but Tardos Mors rejects it. Kantos Kan and John Carter join the Zodangan navy as air scouts in hopes of infiltrating into the confidence of Sab Than and thus finding Dejah Thoris. Kantos Kan teaches Carter to fly and learn the intricacies of the 8th Barsoomian ray, or ray of propulsion. Shortly after winning promotion within the ranks, Carter saves the life of a cousin of Than Kosis, and is appointed a padwar of The Guards with quarters in the palace.

Chapter 22 – I Find Dejah

John Carter is assigned to guard Than Kosis, and is present (although hidden) in his apartment when Dejah Thoris is brought in. He hears her confess her love for Sab Than. She leaves, after asking that Than Kosis stop the war, and Carter deserts his post to follow. Upon finding her apartment, he is denied entry by four guards, whom he slays after a fierce battle. He asks Dejah Thoris if she still loves him, and although she does, she cannot say it because she has given herself to Sab Than in order to stop the war. On Barsoom, a promise is final. He withdraws, dejected, but not defeated. He needs to escape since the four slain guards will soon be found. The royal psychologist, who has read the dead minds of the slain guards, says that the slayer was “a man … never seen before in this or any other country upon Barsoom.” Carter is immediately the chief suspect. Hiding from his pursuers, he is able to escape from the palace grounds.

Chapter 23 – Lost in the Sky

John Carter reveals his love for Dejah Thoris to his friend, Kantos Kan. Together they formulate a plan, whereby Kantos Kan will kill the Zodangan, which John Carter may not do under Barsoomian custom and still wed Dejah. John Carter scales a 1000 foot building to steal his and Kantos Kan’s fliers. A patrol notices them and Carter leads them on a chase while Kantos Kan escapes discovery in the dark sky. Although he escapes, a stray shot smashes his compass and Carter has only the stars to guide him. Helium is five hours by swift flier; but after six hours of flight, in the morning, he discovers a different city.

Chapter 24 – Tars Tarkas Finds a Friend

At noon Carter encounters a savage battle between Tharks and Warhoons. Rifle fire wrecks his flier. Descending, he meets Tars Tarkas, who now acknowledges there is such a thing as friendship. After the battle, John Carter is reunited with the loyal Woola, who has been waiting and watching for his master’s return.

Tars Tarkas offers to aid John Carter’s escape. Carter relates Sola’s story to Tars Tarkas, which has a profound effect upon the green martian. Tars Tarkas confronts Sarkoja with his knowledge regarding her role in the death of Gozava, implying if she does not take the pilgrimage down the River Iss, her days are numbered. Sarkoja is gone the next morning and never seen again.

Following accusations by Carter, Tal Hajus’ right to rule is challenged by Tars Tarkas. Tal Hajus fights and dies. Tars Tarkas becomes the new Jeddak of the Tharks. Tars Tarkas suggests that Thark forms an alliance with Helium to attack and loot Zodanga. For three days 100,000 Tharks and 50,000 green warriors from other hordes march to Zodanga. Arriving, Carter goes over the city wall. Dispatching the sentries, he opens the gates of the doomed city to the waiting hordes.

Chapter 25 – The Looting of Zodanga

John Carter and his 50 Tharks arrive at the gate of Zodanga. As they approach the palace, John Carter looks in a window and sees a ceremony taking place. It is the wedding of Sab Than, the Prince of Zodanga, and Dejah Thoris! Carter bursts through the window and kills Than Kosis, the father of Sab Than. As Carter is surrounded, he pulls Dejah to him to protect her. He then begins to defend himself and her against the Zodangans. He is hard pressed in battle and realizes he needs a miracle in order to succeed. Tars Tarkas surges through the crowd. With the aid of his friend, the enemies are defeated and Sab Than is killed. Carter goes in search of Kantos Kan and finds him in the prison area. After releasing him, they return to the throne room. Carter declares his love to Dejah Thoris and asks her to be his. Dejah Thoris promises herself to him in marriage.

Chapter 26 – Through Carnage to Joy

As the group sails off to return to Helium, they are engaged in battle by the Zodangan navy. The cause seems lost but the ships of Helium finally gain the advantage and win the fight. Still to be faced is the cavalry of Zodanga. Thoats are unloaded from the transports for Carter and his men. They approach the camp of the Zodangans and find themselves facing nearly a million fighting men. Carter hopes that his forces can hold out until their reinforcements from Helium arrive. The reinforcements do arrive in time and the forces of Helium are triumphant. John Carter is presented to Mors Kajak, the father of Dejah Thoris. Kajak is so choked with emotion by the rescue of his daughter that he cannot speak.

Chapter 27 – From Joy To Death

After ten days of feasting, the Tharks return to their own lands. Tars Tarkas attends the “wedding” of John Carter and Dejah Thoris. For 9 years Carter serves and fights for Helium, while his future offspring incubates in an egg chamber. Word is brought that the keeper of the atmosphere plant has been incommunicado for two days and the assistant keeper was assassinated. The impregnable walls cannot be breached, the people of Barsoom accept their doom with courage and dignity. With the end near, Carter holds his beloved Dejah. Suddenly he recollects the nine tone key that unlocks the doors of the atmosphere plant. Speeding to the plant in a flier, Carter finds most trying to break through have succumbed to the thinning air, but he finds one awake and capable of starting the air pumps. His strength ebbing, Carter hurls the nine thought waves at the doors and watches the Martian crawl through as he sinks to the ground, unconscious.

Chapter 28 – At The Arizona Cave

Carter opens his eyes. He is clothed in strange and unaccustomed garments, which crumple away as he sits up. His sight is greeted with a small patch of moonlight framed in a ragged aperture. He feels around his body and discovers a pocket containing matches. He strikes one and in the dim light sees the walls of a cave, the mummified remains of an old woman, and a row of human skeletons suspended from the rock ceiling by a rope; a cord stretches from the rope to the mummified hand of the woman. He exits the cave and is confronted with a rocky ledge and a forgotten sky and landscape. He has returned to Arizona where his adventure began ten years prior.

Another ten years pass. His Arizona mine has given him great wealth, but as he sits and gazes at Mars through his window which overlooks the Hudson, all he can do is wonder: Did the Martian reach the pump room? Did the air reach the rest of Barsoom in time? Were Dejah Thoris and his friends alive? In his mind’s eye he could see her with a little boy at her side, and the faithful Woola at their feet. He believes they are awaiting him, and that soon he will learn of their fates.

Literature Sample:

CHAPTER XI

WITH DEJAH THORIS

As we reached the open the two female guards who had been detailed to watch over Dejah Thoris hurried up and made as though to assume custody of her once more. The poor child shrank against me and I felt her two little hands fold tightly over my arm. Waving the women away, I informed them that Sola would attend the captive hereafter, and I further warned Sarkoja that any more of her cruel attentions bestowed upon Dejah Thoris would result in Sarkoja’s sudden and painful demise.

My threat was unfortunate and resulted in more harm than good to Dejah Thoris, for, as I learned later, men do not kill women upon Mars, nor women, men. So Sarkoja merely gave us an ugly look and departed to hatch up deviltries against us.

I soon found Sola and explained to her that I wished her to guard Dejah Thoris as she had guarded me; that I wished her to find other quarters where they would not be molested by Sarkoja, and I finally informed her that I myself would take up my quarters among the men.

Sola glanced at the accouterments which were carried in my hand and slung across my shoulder.

“You are a great chieftain now, John Carter,” she said, “and I must do your bidding, though indeed I am glad to do it under any circumstances. The man whose metal you carry was young, but he was a great warrior, and had by his promotions and kills won his way close to the rank of Tars Tarkas, who, as you know, is second to Lorquas Ptomel only. You are eleventh, there are but ten chieftains in this community who rank you in prowess.”

“And if I should kill Lorquas Ptomel?” I asked.

“You would be first, John Carter; but you may only win that honor by the will of the entire council that Lorquas Ptomel meet you in combat, or should he attack you, you may kill him in self-defense, and thus win first place.”

I laughed, and changed the subject. I had no particular desire to kill Lorquas Ptomel, and less to be a jed among the Tharks.

I accompanied Sola and Dejah Thoris in a search for new quarters, which we found in a building nearer the audience chamber and of far more pretentious architecture than our former habitation. We also found in this building real sleeping apartments with ancient beds of highly wrought metal swinging from enormous gold chains depending from the marble ceilings. The decoration of the walls was most elaborate, and, unlike the frescoes in the other buildings I had examined, portrayed many human figures in the compositions.

These were of people like myself, and of a much lighter color than Dejah Thoris. They were clad in graceful, flowing robes, highly ornamented with metal and jewels, and their luxuriant hair was of a beautiful golden and reddish bronze. The men were beardless and only a few wore arms. The scenes depicted for the most part, a fair-skinned, fair-haired people at play.

Dejah Thoris clasped her hands with an exclamation of rapture as she gazed upon these magnificent works of art, wrought by a people long extinct; while Sola, on the other hand, apparently did not see them.

We decided to use this room, on the second floor and overlooking the plaza, for Dejah Thoris and Sola, and another room adjoining and in the rear for the cooking and supplies. I then dispatched Sola to bring the bedding and such food and utensils as she might need, telling her that I would guard Dejah Thoris until her return.

As Sola departed Dejah Thoris turned to me with a faint smile.

“And whereto, then, would your prisoner escape should you leave her, unless it was to follow you and crave your protection, and ask your pardon for the cruel thoughts she has harbored against you these past few days?”

“You are right,” I answered, “there is no escape for either of us unless we go together.”

“I heard your challenge to the creature you call Tars Tarkas, and I think I understand your position among these people, but what I cannot fathom is your statement that you are not of Barsoom.”

“In the name of my first ancestor, then,” she continued, “where may you be from? You are like unto my people, and yet so unlike. You speak my language, and yet I heard you tell Tars Tarkas that you had but learned it recently. All Barsoomians speak the same tongue from the ice-clad south to the ice-clad north, though their written languages differ. Only in the valley Dor, where the river Iss empties into the lost sea of Korus, is there supposed to be a different language spoken, and, except in the legends of our ancestors, there is no record of a Barsoomian returning up the river Iss, from the shores of Korus in the valley of Dor. Do not tell me that you have thus returned! They would kill you horribly anywhere upon the surface of Barsoom if that were true; tell me it is not!”

Her eyes were filled with a strange, weird light; her voice was pleading, and her little hands, reached up upon my breast, were pressed against me as though to wring a denial from my very heart.

“I do not know your customs, Dejah Thoris, but in my own Virginia a gentleman does not lie to save himself; I am not of Dor; I have never seen the mysterious Iss; the lost sea of Korus is still lost, so far as I am concerned. Do you believe me?”

And then it struck me suddenly that I was very anxious that she should believe me. It was not that I feared the results which would follow a general belief that I had returned from the Barsoomian heaven or hell, or whatever it was. Why was it, then! Why should I care what she thought? I looked down at her; her beautiful face upturned, and her wonderful eyes opening up the very depth of her soul; and as my eyes met hers I knew why, and–I shuddered.

A similar wave of feeling seemed to stir her; she drew away from me with a sigh, and with her earnest, beautiful face turned up to mine, she whispered: “I believe you, John Carter; I do not know what a ‘gentleman’ is, nor have I ever he does not wish to speak the truth he is silent. Where is this Virginia, your country, John Carter?” she asked, and it seemed that this fair name of my fair land had never sounded more beautiful than as it fell from those perfect lips on that far-gone day.

“I am of another world,” I answered, “the great planet Earth, which revolves about our common sun and next within the orbit of your Barsoom, which we know as Mars. How I came here I cannot tell you, for I do not know; but here I am, and since my presence has permitted me to serve Dejah Thoris I am glad that I am here.”

She gazed at me with troubled eyes, long and questioningly. That it was difficult to believe my statement I well knew, nor could I hope that she would do so however much I craved her confidence and respect. I would much rather not have told her anything of my antecedents, but no man could look into the depth of those eyes and refuse her slightest behest.

Finally she smiled, and, rising, said: “I shall have to believe even though I cannot understand. I can readily perceive that you are not of the Barsoom of today; you are like us, yet different–but why should I trouble my poor head with such a problem, when my heart tells me that I believe because I wish to believe!”

It was good logic, good, earthly, feminine logic, and if it satisfied her I certainly could pick no flaws in it. As a matter of fact it was about the only kind of logic that could be brought to bear upon my problem. We fell into a general conversation then, asking and answering many questions on each side. She was curious to learn of the customs of my people and displayed a remarkable knowledge of events on Earth. When I questioned her closely on this seeming familiarity with earthly things she laughed, and cried out:

“Why, every school boy on Barsoom knows the geography, and much concerning the fauna and flora, as well as the history of your planet fully as well as of his own. Can we not see everything which takes place upon Earth, as you call it; is it not hanging there in the heavens in plain sight?”

This baffled me, I must confess, fully as much as my statements had confounded her; and I told her so. She then explained in general the instruments her people had used and been perfecting for ages, which permit them to throw upon a screen a perfect image of what is transpiring upon any planet and upon many of the stars. These pictures are so perfect in detail that, when photographed and enlarged, objects no greater than a blade of grass may be distinctly recognized. I afterward, in Helium, saw many of these pictures, as well as the instruments which produced them.

“If, then, you are so familiar with earthly things,” I asked, “why is it that you do not recognize me as identical with the inhabitants of that planet?”

She smiled again as one might in bored indulgence of a questioning child.

“Because, John Carter,” she replied, “nearly every planet and star having atmospheric conditions at all approaching those of Barsoom, shows forms of animal life almost identical with you and me; and, further, Earth men, almost without exception, cover their bodies with strange, unsightly pieces of cloth, and their heads with hideous contraptions the purpose of which we have been unable to conceive; while you, when found by the Tharkian warriors, were entirely undisfigured and unadorned.

“The fact that you wore no ornaments is a strong proof of your un-Barsoomian origin, while the absence of grotesque coverings might cause a doubt as to your earthliness.”

I then narrated the details of my departure from the Earth, explaining that my body there lay fully clothed in all the, to her, strange garments of mundane dwellers. At this point Sola returned with our meager belongings and her young Martian protege, who, of course, would have to share the quarters with them.

Sola asked us if we had had a visitor during her absence, and seemed much surprised when we answered in the negative. It seemed that as she had mounted the approach to the upper floors where our quarters were located, she had met Sarkoja descending. We decided that she must have been eavesdropping, but as we could recall nothing of importance that had passed between us we dismissed the matter as of little consequence, merely promising ourselves to be warned to the utmost caution in the future.

Dejah Thoris and I then fell to examining the architecture and decorations of the beautiful chambers of the building we were occupying. She told me that these people had presumably flourished over a hundred thousand years before.

They were the early progenitors of her race, but had mixed with the other great race of early Martians, who were very dark, almost black, and also with the reddish yellow race which had flourished at the same time.

These three great divisions of the higher Martians had been forced into a mighty alliance as the drying up of the Martian seas had compelled them to seek the comparatively few and always diminishing fertile areas, and to defend themselves, under new conditions of life, against the wild hordes of green men.

Ages of close relationship and intermarrying had resulted in the race of red men, of which Dejah Thoris was a fair and beautiful daughter. During the ages of hardships and incessant warring between their own various races, as well as with the green men, and before they had fitted themselves to the changed conditions, much of the high civilization and many of the arts of the fair-haired Martians had become lost; but the red race of today has reached a point where it feels that it has made up in new discoveries and in a more practical civilization for all that lies irretrievably buried with the ancient Barsoomians, beneath the countless intervening ages.

These ancient Martians had been a highly cultivated and literary race, but during the vicissitudes of those trying centuries of readjustment to new conditions, not only did their advancement and production cease entirely, but practically all their archives, records, and literature were lost.

Dejah Thoris related many interesting facts and legends concerning this lost race of noble and kindly people. She said that the city in which we were camping was supposed to have been a center of commerce and culture known as Korad. It had been built upon a beautiful, natural harbor, landlocked by magnificent hills. The little valley on the west front of the city, she explained, was all that remained of the harbor, while the pass through the hills to the old sea bottom had been the channel through which the shipping passed up to the city’s gates.

The shores of the ancient seas were dotted with just such cities, and lesser ones, in diminishing numbers, were to be found converging toward the center of the oceans, as the people had found it necessary to follow the receding waters until necessity had forced upon them their ultimate salvation, the so-called Martian canals.

We had been so engrossed in exploration of the building and in our conversation that it was late in the afternoon before we realized it. We were brought back to a realization of our present conditions by a messenger bearing a summons from Lorquas Ptomel directing me to appear before him forthwith. Bidding Dejah Thoris and Sola farewell, and commanding Woola to remain on guard, I hastened to the

audience chamber, where I found Lorquas Ptomel and Tars Tarkas seated upon the rostrum

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